Ethnoracial Transformations? Linking Administrative Data to Explain Changes in Identification

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Agadjanian, Alexander

   . 2022. “How Many Americans Change Their Racial Identification over Time?” Socius 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231221098547.
2. ↵
   1. Alba, Richard

   . 2020. The Great Demographic Illusion: Majority, Minority, and the Expanding American Mainstream. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
3. ↵
   1. Almond, Douglas, and
   2. Janet Currie

   . 2011. “Killing Me Softly: The Fetal Origins Hypothesis.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 25(3): 153–72. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.25.3.153.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
4. ↵
   1. American Community Survey

   . 2010–2019. “Federal Statistical Research Data Centers.” https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/data.html.
5. ↵
   1. Bialik, Kristen

   . 2017. “Key Facts About Race and Marriage, 50 Years After Loving V. Virginia.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/06/12/key-facts-about-race-and-marriage-50-years-after-loving-v-virginia.
6. ↵
   1. Bond, Brittany,
   2. David Brown,
   3. Adela Luque, and
   4. Amy O’Hara

   . 2014. “The Nature of the Bias When Studying Only Linkable Person Records: Evidence from the American Community Survey.” CARRA working paper no. 2014-08. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2014/adrm/carra-wp-2014-08.pdf.
7. ↵
   1. Breen, Casey F

   . 2023. “Late-Life Changes in Ethnoracial Self-identification: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Data.” Population Research and Policy Review 42(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-023-09764-4.
8. ↵
   1. Brown, Hana E.,
   2. Jennifer A. Jones, and
   3. Andrea Becker

   . 2018. “The Racialization of Latino Immigrants in New Destinations: Criminality, Ascription, and Countermobilization.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4(5): 118–40. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.5.06.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Campbell, Mary E

   . 2007. “Thinking Outside the (Black) Box: Measuring Black and Multiracial Identification on Surveys.” Social Science Research 36(3): 921–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.07.001.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
10. ↵
    1. Campbell, Mary E

    . 2020. “Color and Constraint: Skin Tone and Identification Among Recent Immigrants to the United States.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 17(2): 271–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X20000193.

    OpenUrl
11. ↵
    1. Campbell, Mary E., and
    2. Christabel L. Rogalin

    . 2006. “Categorical Imperatives: The Interaction of Latino and Racial Identification.” Social Science Quarterly 87(5): 1030–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00414.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Chetty, Raj,
    2. John Friedman,
    3. Nathaniel Hilger,
    4. Emmanuel Saez,
    5. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach, and
    6. Danny Yagan

    . 2011. “How Does Your Kindergarten Classroom Affect Your Earnings? Evidence from Project STAR.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4): 1593–660. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr041.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
13. ↵
    1. Chetty, Raj,
    2. Nathaniel Hendren,
    3. Patrick Kline, and
    4. Emmanuel Saez

    . 2014. “Where Is the Land of Opportunity? The Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 129(4): 1553–623. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qju022.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
14. 1. Compton, Elizabeth,
    2. Michael Bentley,
    3. Sharon Ennis, and
    4. Sonya Rastogi

    , eds. 2012. “2010 Census Race and Hispanic Origin Alternative Questionnaire Experiment.” Washington: U.S. Census Bureau.
15. ↵
    1. Davenport, Lauren

    . 2020. “The Fluidity of Racial Classifications.” Annual Review of Political Science 23(1): 221–40. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-060418-042801.

    OpenUrl
16. ↵
    1. Doyle, Jamie Mihoko, and
    2. Grace Kao

    . 2007. “Are Racial Identities of Multiracials Stable? Changing Self-Identification Among Single and Multiple Race Individuals.” Social Psychology Quarterly 70(4): 405–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250707000409.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
17. ↵
    1. Duncan, Brian, and
    2. Stephen J. Trejo

    . 2011. “Who Remains Mexican? Selective Ethnic Attrition and the Intergenerational Progress of Mexican Americans.” In Latinos and the Economy: Integration and Impact in Schools, Labor Markets, and Beyond, Immigrants and Minorities, Politics and Policy, edited by David L. Leal and Stephen J. Trejo. New York: Springer.
18. ↵
    1. Duncan, Brian, and
    2. Stephen J. Trejo

    . 2018. “Identifying the Later-Generation Descendants of U.S. Immigrants: Issues Arising from Selective Ethnic Attrition.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 677(1): 131–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218763293.

    OpenUrl
19. ↵
    1. Edmonston, Barry,
    2. Sharon M. Lee, and
    3. Jeffrey S. Passel

    . 2002. “Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration and Their Effects on the Future Racial Composition of the U.S. Population.” In The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals, edited by Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
20. ↵
    1. Farley, Reynolds

    . 2002. “Racial Identities in 2000: The Response to the Multiple-Race Response Option.” In The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals, edited by Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
21. ↵
    1. Feliciano, Cynthia, and
    2. Rubén G. Rumbaut

    . 2018. “Varieties of Ethnic Self-Identities: Children of Immigrants in Middle Adulthood.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4(5): 26–46. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.5.02.

    OpenUrl
22. ↵
    1. Fischer, Claude S., and
    2. Michael Hout

    . 2006. Century of Difference: How America Changed in the Last One Hundred Years. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
23. ↵
    1. Hillygus, D. Sunshine,
    2. Norman H. Nie,
    3. Kenneth Prewitt, and
    4. Heili Pals

    . 2010. The Hard Count: The Political and Social Challenges of Census Mobilization. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
24. ↵
    1. Irizarry, Yasmiyn,
    2. Ellis P. Monk Jr.., and
    3. Ryon J. Cobb

    . 2023. “Race-Shifting in the United States: Latinxs, Skin Tone, and Ethnoracial Alignments.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 9(1): 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/23326492221114813.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Jones, Nicholas,
    2. Rachel Marks,
    3. Roberto Ramirez, and
    4. Merarys Rios-Vargas

    . 2021. “2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country.” Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html.
26. ↵
    1. Kayyali, Randa

    . 2013. “US Census Classifications and Arab Americans: Contestations and Definitions of Identity Markers.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39(8): 1299–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.778150.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Lee, Jennifer, and
    2. Frank D. Bean

    . 2012. The Diversity Paradox : Immigration and the Color Line in Twenty-First Century America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
28. ↵
    1. Lieberson, Stanley, and
    2. Mary C. Waters

    . 1990. From Many Strands: Ethnic and Racial Groups in Contemporary America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
29. ↵
    1. Liebler, Carolyn A.,
    2. Renuka Bhaskar, and
    3. Sonya R. Porter (née Rastogi)

    . 2016. “Joining, Leaving, and Staying in the American Indian/Alaska Native Race Category Between 2000 and 2010.” Demography 53(2): 507–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0461-2.

    OpenUrlPubMed
30. ↵
    1. Liebler, Carolyn A.,
    2. Sonya R. Porter,
    3. Leticia E. Fernandez,
    4. James M. Noon, and
    5. Sharon R. Ennis

    . 2017. “America’s Churning Races: Race and Ethnicity Response Changes Between Census 2000 and the 2010 Census.” Demography 54(1): 259–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0544-0.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
31. ↵
    1. Lujan, Carol Chiago

    . 2014. “American Indians and Alaska Natives Count: The US Census Bureau’s Efforts to Enumerate the Native Population.” American Indian Quarterly 38(3): 319–41. https://doi.org/10.5250/amerindiquar.38.3.0319.

    OpenUrl
32. 1. Massey, Catherine G.,
    2. Katie R. Genadek,
    3. J. Trent Alexander,
    4. Todd K. Gardner, and
    5. Amy O’Hara

    . 2018. “Linking the 1940 U.S. Census with Modern Data.” Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 51(4): 246–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/01615440.2018.1507772.

    OpenUrl
33. ↵
    1. Massey, Catherine G., and
    2. Amy O’Hara

    . 2014. “Person Matching in Historical Files Using the Census Bureau’s Person Validation System.” CARRA working paper no. 2014-11. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau.
34. ↵
    1. Mathews, Kelly,
    2. Jessica Phelan,
    3. Nicholas A. Jones,
    4. Sarah Konya,
    5. Rachel Marks,
    6. Beverly M. Pratt,
    7. Julia Coombs, and
    8. Michael Bentley

    , eds. 2017. “2015 National Content Test Race and Ethnicity Analysis Report.” Washington: U.S. Census Bureau.
35. ↵
    1. Newby, C. Alison, and
    2. Julie A. Dowling

    . 2007. “Black and Hispanic: The Racial Identification of Afro-Cuban Immigrants in the Southwest.” Sociological Perspectives 50(3): 343–66. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2007.50.3.343.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Perlmann, Joel

    . 2002. “Census Bureau Long-Term Racial Projections: Interpreting Their Results and Seeking Their Rationale.” In The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals, edited by Joel Perlmann and Mary C. Waters. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
37. ↵
    1. Pickett, Robert E.M.,
    2. Aliya Saperstein, and
    3. Andrew M. Penner

    . 2019. “Placing Racial Classification in Context.” Socius 5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119851016.
38. ↵
    1. Porter, Sonya R.,
    2. Carolyn A. Liebler, and
    3. James M. Noon

    . 2016. “An Outside View: What Observers Say About Others’ Races and Hispanic Origins.” American Behavioral Scientist 60(4): 465–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764215613397.

    OpenUrl
39. ↵
    1. Rodriguez, Clara

    . 2000. Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States. New York: New York University Press.
40. ↵
    1. Roth, Wendy

    . 2012. Race Migrations: Latinos and the Cultural Transformation of Race. Redwood City, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
41. ↵
    1. Saperstein, Aliya, and
    2. Aaron Gullickson

    . 2013. “A ‘Mulatto Escape Hatch’ in the United States? Examining Evidence of Racial and Social Mobility During the Jim Crow Era.” Demography 50(5): 1921–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-013-0210-8.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
42. ↵
    1. Saperstein, Aliya, and
    2. Andrew M. Penner

    . 2012. “Racial Fluidity and Inequality in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 118(3): 676–727. https://doi.org/10.1086/667722.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
43. ↵
    1. Snipp, C. Matthew

    . 2003. “Racial Measurement in the American Census: Past Practices and Implications for the Future.” Annual Review of Sociology 29(1): 563–88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100006.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
44. ↵
    1. Taylor, Evan J.,
    2. Bryan Stuart, and
    3. Martha Bailey

    . 2016. “Summary of Procedure to Match Numident Place of Birth County to GNIS Places.” Technical Note CES-TN-2016-01. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www2.census.gov/ces/tn/CES-TN-2016-01.pdf.
45. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2010. “Federal Statistical Research Data Centers.” Last revised July 5, 2023. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.census.gov/about/adrm/fsrdc.html.
46. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2023. “Federal Statistical Research Data Centers.” Last revised July 5, 2023. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.census.gov/about/adrm/fsrdc.html.
47. ↵
    1. Vargas, Nicholas

    . 2015. “Latina/o Whitening? Which Latina/os Self-Classify as White and Report Being Perceived as White by Other Americans?” Du Bois Review 12(1): 119–36. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X14000241.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
48. ↵
    1. Vargas, Nicholas, and
    2. Kevin Stainback

    . 2016. “Documenting Contested Racial Identities Among Self-Identified Latina/os, Asians, Blacks, and Whites.” American Behavioral Scientist 60(4): 442–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764215613396.

    OpenUrl
49. ↵
    1. Ventura, Ilana, M. and
    2. René D. Flores

    . 2025. “The ‘Rise’ of Multiracials? Examining the Growth in Multiracial Identification in the 2020 U.S. Census.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(1): 44–64. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.1.03.

    OpenUrl
50. ↵
    1. Wagner, Deborah, and
    2. Mary Layne

    . 2014. “The Person Identification Validation System (PVS): Applying the Center for Administrative Records Research and Applications’ (CARRA) Record Linkage Software.” CARRA working paper no. 2014-01. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau.
51. ↵
    1. Waters, Mary C

    . 2000. “Immigration, Intermarriage, and the Challenges of Measuring Racial/Ethnic Identities.” American Journal of Public Health 90(11): 1735. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.11.1735.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science