Suffering, the Safety Net, and Disparities During COVID-19

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Aaronson, Stephanie

   . 2021. “What Does the Unemployment Rate Measure?” Up Front (Brookings Institution blog), February 18. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2021/02/18/what-does-the-unemployment-rate-measure/.
2. ↵
   1. Aussenberg, Randy, and
   2. Kara Billings

   . 2021. “USDA Nutrition Assistance Programs: Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic.” CRS Report no. R46681. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46681/4.
3. ↵
   1. Bauer, Lauren,
   2. Abigail Pitts,
   3. Krista Ruffini, and
   4. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach

   . 2020. “The Effect of Pandemic EBT on Measures of Food Hardship.” The Hamilton Project, Economic Analysis. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/P-EBT_LO_7.30.pdf.
4. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P.,
   2. Annie Laurie Hines, and
   3. Marianne Page

   . 2018. “Cash for Kids.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4(2): 43–73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.2.03.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
5. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P., and
   2. Hilary W. Hoynes

   . 2010. “The State of the Safety Net in the Post-Welfare Reform Era.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity No. 2 (Fall): 71–127. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/bpea-articles/the-state-of-the-social-safety-net-in-the-post-welfare-reform-era-with-comments-and-discussion/.

   OpenUrl
6. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P., and
   2. Hilary W. Hoynes

   . 2015. “Heterogeneity in the Impact of Economic Cycles and the Great Recession: Effects Within and Across the Income Distribution.” American Economic Review 105(5): 154–60.

   OpenUrl
7. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P., and
   2. Hilary W. Hoynes

   . 2016. “The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same? The Safety Net and Poverty in the Great Recession.” Journal of Labor Economics 34(S1): 403–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/683096.

   OpenUrl
8. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P.,
   2. Hilary W. Hoynes, and
   3. John Iselin

   . 2020. “The Cyclicality of Cash and Near Cash Transfer Programs.” National Tax Journal 73(3): 759–70.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Bitler, Marianne P.,
   2. Hilary W. Hoynes, and
   3. Elira Kuka

   . 2017. “Do In-Work Tax Credits Serve as a Safety Net?” Journal of Human Resources 36(2): 358–89.

   OpenUrl
10. ↵
    1. Bitler, Marianne P.,
    2. Hilary W. Hoynes, and
    3. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach

    . 2020. “The Social Safety Net in the Wake of COVID-19.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity No. 2: 119–58. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/SU20_S2_Bitler-et-al_-final-paper.pdf.
11. ↵
    1. Bollinger, Christopher,
    2. Barry Hirsch,
    3. Charles Hokayem, and
    4. James Ziliak

    . 2019. “Trouble in the Talks: What We Know about Earnings Non-Response Thirty Years after Lillard, Smith, and Welch.” Journal of Political Economy 127(5): 2143–85.

    OpenUrl
12. ↵
    1. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities

    . 2019. “Policy Basics: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.” Updated June 25, 2019. Washington, D.C.: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap.
13. ↵
    1. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities

    . 2022. “A Quick Guide to SNAP Eligibility and Benefits.” Updated January 6, 2022. Washington, D.C.: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/a-quick-guide-to-snap-eligibility-and-benefits.
14. ↵
    1. Coleman-Jensen, Alisha,
    2. Matthew P. Rabbitt,
    3. Christian A. Gregory, and
    4. Anita Singh

    . 2020. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2019.” Report no. ERR-275. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
15. ↵
    1. Coleman-Jensen, Alisha,
    2. Matthew P. Rabbitt,
    3. Christian A. Gregory, and
    4. Anita Singh

    . 2021. “Household Food Security in the United States in 2020.” Report no. ERR-298. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
16. ↵
    1. Crandall-Hollick, Margot L

    . 2021. “The Child Tax Credit: Temporary Expansion for 2021 Under the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021.” CRS Insight #IN11613. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11613/10.
17. ↵
    1. Cunnyngham, Karen

    . 2020. “Reaching Those in Need: Estimates of State Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Participation Rates in 2017.” Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service.
18. ↵
    1. Duncan, Greg, and
    2. Suzanne Le Menestre

    , eds. 2019. A Roadmap to Reducing Child Poverty. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/25246.
19. ↵
    1. Flood, Sarah,
    2. Miriam King,
    3. Renae Rodgers,
    4. Steven Ruggles,
    5. J. Robert Warren, and
    6. Michael Westberry

    . 2021. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Current Population Survey: Version 9.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis, Minn.: IPUMS. https://doi.org/10.18128/D030.V9.0.
20. ↵
    1. Food and Nutrition Service

    . 2021a. “Bi-Annual (January and July) State Project Area/County Level Participation and Issuance Data.” Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture. [dataset]. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap.
21. ↵
    1. Food and Nutrition Service

    . 2021b. “SNAP National Level Monthly Data.” Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap.
22. ↵
    1. Food and Nutrition Service

    . 2021c. Thrifty Food Plan, 2021. Report no. FNS-916. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://FNS.usda.gov/TFP.
23. ↵
    1. Fox, Liana

    2020. “The Supplemental Poverty Measure: 2019.” Current Population Report P60-272, Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed February 18, 2023. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-272.pdf.
24. ↵
    1. Fox, Liana, and
    2. Kalee Burns

    . 2021. “The Supplemental Poverty Measure: 2020.” Current Population Report No. P60-27. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2021/demo/p60-275.html.
25. ↵
    1. Ganong, Peter,
    2. Pascal Noel, and
    3. Joseph Vavra

    . 2020. “US Unemployment Insurance Replacement Rates during the Pandemic.” NBER working paper no. w27216. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.nber.org/papers/w27216.
26. ↵
    1. Gray, Colin

    . 2019. “Leaving Benefits on the Table: Evidence from SNAP.” Journal of Public Economics 179 (November): 104054. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2019.104054.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Hardy, Bradley,
    2. Tim Smeeding, and
    3. James Ziliak

    . 2018. “The Changing Safety Net for Low-Income Parents and Their Children: Structural or Cyclical Changes in Income Support Policy.” Demography 55 (February): 189–221.

    OpenUrl
28. ↵
    1. Hill, Latoya, and
    2. Samantha Artiga

    . 2022. “COVID-19 Cases and Deaths by Race/Ethnicity: Current Data and Changes over Time.” KFF Issue Brief, August 22. San Francisco: Kaiser Family Foundation. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/covid-19-cases-and-deaths-by-race-ethnicity-current-data-and-changes-over-time/.
29. ↵
    1. Homonoff, Tatiana, and
    2. Jason Somerville

    , 2021. “Program Recertification Costs: Evidence from SNAP.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13(4): 271–98.

    OpenUrl
30. ↵
    1. Hoynes, Hilary W., and
    2. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach

    2018. “Safety Net Investments in Children.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity No. 1 (Spring): 89–150.

    OpenUrl
31. ↵
    1. Hoynes, Hilary W., and
    2. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach

    . 2019. “Strengthening SNAP as an Automatic Stabilizer.” In Recession Ready: Fiscal Policies to Stabilize the American Economy, edited by Heather Boushey, Ryan Nunn, and Jay Shambaugh. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
32. ↵
    1. Kuka, Elira, and
    2. Bryan A. Stuart

    . 2021. “Racial Inequality in Unemployment Insurance Receipt and Take-Up.” NBER working paper no. w29595. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.
33. ↵
    1. Larrimore, Jeff,
    2. Jacob Mortenson, and
    3. David Splinter

    . 2022. “Unemployment Insurance in Survey and Administrative Data.” FEDS Notes. Washington, D.C.: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.3135.
34. 1. Mathematica Policy Research

    . 2018. FY 2017 SNAP QC database. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://snapqcdata.net/datafiles.
35. 1. Mathematica Policy Research

    . 2019. FY 2018 SNAP QC database. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://snapqcdata.net/datafiles.
36. 1. Mathematica Policy Research

    . 2020. FY 2019 SNAP QC database. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://snapqcdata.net/datafiles.
37. ↵
    1. Meyer, Bruce,
    2. Wallace Mok, and
    3. James Sullivan

    . 2015. “Household Surveys in Crisis.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 29(4): 199–226.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
38. ↵
    1. Mueller, Andreas,
    2. Jesse Rothstein, and
    3. Till von Wachter

    . 2016. “Unemployment Insurance and Disability Insurance in the Great Recession.” Journal of Labor Economics 34(S1): S445–75.

    OpenUrl
39. ↵
    1. Parolin, Zachary,
    2. Elizabeth Ananat,
    3. Sophie Collyer,
    4. Megan Curran, and
    5. Christopher Wimer

    . 2021. “The Initial Effects of the Expanded Child Tax Credit on Material Hardship.” Brief no. 20413. New York: Columbia University, Center on Poverty and Social Policy.
40. ↵
    1. Parolin, Zachary,
    2. Sophie Collyer,
    3. Megan Curran, and
    4. Christopher Wimer

    . 2021. “Monthly Poverty Rates Among Children After the Expansion of the Child Tax Credit.” Brief no. 20412. New York: Columbia University, Center on Poverty and Social Policy.
41. ↵
    1. Parolin, Zachary,
    2. Megan Curran,
    3. Jordan Matsudaira,
    4. Jane Waldfogel, and
    5. Christopher Wimer

    . 2022. “Estimating Monthly Poverty Rates in the US.” Discussion paper. New York: Columbia University, Center on Poverty and Social Policy.
42. ↵
    1. Rothbaum, Jonathan, and
    2. Adam Bee

    . 2021. “Coronavirus Infects Surveys Too: Survey Nonresponse Bias and the Coronavirus Pandemic.” Working Paper no. SEHSD WP2020-10. Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2020/demo/SEHSD-WP2020-10.html.
43. ↵
    1. Shaefer, H. Luke,
    2. Sophie Collyer,
    3. Greg Duncan,
    4. Kathryn Edin,
    5. Irwin Garfinkel,
    6. David Harris,
    7. Timothy Smeeding,
    8. Jane Waldfogel,
    9. Christopher Wimer, and
    10. Hirokazu Yoshikawa

    . 2018. “A Universal Child Allowance: A Plan to Reduce Poverty and Income Instability Among Children in the United States.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences. 4(2): 22–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.2.02.

    OpenUrl
44. ↵
    1. USAFacts

    . 2022. “Deaths from COVID_19.” Downloadable data file. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://usafacts.org/visualizations/coronavirus-covid-19-spread-map.
45. ↵
    1. USASpending.gov

    . 2021. “The Federal Response to COVID-19.” Accessed November 8, 2021. https://www.usaspending.gov/disaster/covid-19?publicLaw=all.
46. 1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)

    . 2020. “Frequently Asked Questions: The Impact of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic on the Employment Situation for April 2020.” Accessed October 8, 2022. https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-april-2020.htm.
47. ↵
    1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)

    . 2021. “Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages.” QCEW Open Data Access. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.bls.gov/cew/additional-resources/open-data/home.htm.
48. 1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2018. “Current Population Survey, 2017 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC).” Supplement conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/time-series/demo/cps/cps-asec.2017.html#list-tab-QZJHN1DP8SLZ903PMP.
49. 1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2019. “Current Population Survey, 2018 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC).” Supplement conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/time-series/demo/cps/cps-asec.2018.html#list-tab-LOWBNPSTB2TGIHZ7BR.
50. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2020a. “American Community Survey 2015–2019 5-Year Data Release.” Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-kits/2020/acs-5-year.html.
51. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2020b. “Current Population Survey, 2020 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC).” Supplement conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/time-series/demo/cps/cps-asec.2020.html#list-tab-TLBI8972WSCHODVSVO.
52. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2020c. “Source of the Data and Accuracy of the Estimates for the 2020 Household Pulse Survey.” Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/demo/technical-documentation/hhp/Source-and-Accuracy-Statement-May-14-May-19.pdf.
53. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2021a. “Current Population Survey, 2021 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC).” Supplement conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/time-series/demo/cps/cps-asec.2021.html#list-tab-OGPJT8V40Y9IK01AGX.
54. ↵
    1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2021b. “Population Density, from 2020 Census Demographic Data Map Viewer.” Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2021/geo/demographicmapviewer.html.
55. ↵
    1. U.S. Department of Labor

    . 2004. “UI Replacement Rates Report.” Created March 29, 2004. Updates July 7, 2022. Accessed November 1, 2022. https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/ui_replacement _rates.asp.
56. ↵
    1. U.S. Department of Labor

    . 2022. “Families First Coronavirus Response Act and Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act Funding to States through October 8, 2022.” Accessed October 7, 2022. https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/docs/cares_act_funding_state.html.
57. ↵
    1. U.S. Department of the Treasury. Bureau of the Fiscal Service

    . 2022. “Monthly Treasury Statement,” November 30. Accessed January 3, 2023. https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/monthly-treasury-statement/summary-of-receipts-outlays-and-the-deficit-surplus-of-the-u-s-government.
58. ↵
    1. Whittaker, Julia M., and
    2. Katelin P. Isaacs

    . 2021. “Unemployment Insurance: Legislative Issues in the 116th Congress.” CRS Report no. R45478. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service.
59. ↵
    1. Zalla, Lauren,
    2. Grace Mulholland,
    3. Lindsey Filatreau, and
    4. Jessie Edwards

    . 2022. “Racial/Ethnic and Age Differences in the Direct and Indirect Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on US Mortality.” American Journal of Public Health 112(1): 154–64.

    OpenUrlPubMed
60. ↵
    1. Ziliak, James

    , 2015. “Why Are So Many Americans on Food Stamps? The Role of the Economy, Policy, and Demographics.” In SNAP Matters: How Food Stamps Affect Health and Well-Being, edited by Judith Bartfeld, Craig Gundersen, Timothy Smeeding, and James Ziliak. Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press.