Do Perceptions of Privilege Enhance—or Impede—Perceptions of Intelligence? Evidence from a National Survey Experiment

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Aisch, Gregor,
   2. Larry Buchanan,
   3. Amanda Cox, and
   4. Kevin Quealy

   . 2017. “Some Colleges Have More Students from the Top 1 Percent Than the Bottom 60. Find Yours.” New York Times, January 18. Accessed November 19, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/01/18/upshot/some-colleges-have-more-students-from-the-top-1-percent-than-the-bottom-60.html.
2. ↵
   1. Arcidiacono, Peter,
   2. Josh Kinsler, and
   3. Tyler Ransom

   . 2022. “Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard.” Journal of Labor Economics 40(1): 133–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/713744.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Bartz, Kevin

   . 2009. “English First Names for Chinese Americans.” Harvard University Social Science Statistics Blog, March 13. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://blogs.iq.harvard.edu/english_first_n.
4. ↵
   1. Bénabou, Roland, and
   2. Jean Tirole

   . 2006. “Belief in a Just World and Redistributive Politics.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 121(2): 699–746.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
5. ↵
   1. Berger, Joseph,
   2. Bernard P. Cohen, and
   3. Morris Zelditch

   . 1972. “Status Characteristics and Social Interaction.” American Sociological Review 37(3): 241–55.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
6. ↵
   1. Bero, Tayo

   . 2021. “Turns Out, Harvard Students Aren’t That Smart After All.” The Guardian, November 17. Accessed November 19, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/17/harvard-university-students-smart-iq.
7. ↵
   1. Binder, Amy J.,
   2. Daniel B. Davis, and
   3. Nick Bloom

   . 2016. “Career Funneling: How Elite Students Learn to Define and Desire ‘Prestigious’ Jobs.” Sociology of Education 89(1): 20–39.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
8. ↵
   1. Blau, Peter M., and
   2. Otis Dudley Duncan

   . 1967. The American Occupational Structure. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
9. ↵
   1. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo

   . 2006. Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
10. ↵
    1. Bourdieu, Pierre

    . 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson. New York: Greenwood.
11. ↵
    1. Calarco, Jessica McCrory

    . 2011. “‘I Need Help!’ Social Class and Children’s Help-Seeking in Elementary School.” American Sociological Review 76(6): 862–82.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Castro, Abril

    . 2020. “An Elite College Has Dropped Legacy Admissions—It’s Time for Other Higher Education Institutions to Do the Same.” Center for American Progress, January 30. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/elite-college-dropped-legacy-admissions-time-higher-education-institutions/.
13. ↵
    1. Conwell, Jordan A

    . 2021. “Diverging Disparities: Race, Parental Income, and Children’s Math Scores, 1960 to 2009.” Sociology of Education 94(2): 124–42.

    OpenUrl
14. ↵
    1. Conwell, Jordan A., and
    2. Natasha Quadlin

    . 2022. “Race, Gender, Higher Education, and Socioeconomic Attainment: Evidence from Baby Boomers at Mid-Life.” Social Forces 100(3): 990–1024.

    OpenUrl
15. ↵
    1. Conwell, Jordan A., and
    2. Leafia Zi Ye

    . 2021. “All Wealth Is Not Created Equal: Race, Parental Net Worth, and Children’s Achievement.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 7(3): 101–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2021.7.3.05.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
16. ↵
    1. Crabtree, Charles, and
    2. Volha Chykina

    . 2018. “Last Name Selection in Audit Studies.” Sociological Science 5(2): 21–28.

    OpenUrl
17. ↵
    1. Cuddy, Amy J. C.,
    2. Susan T. Fiske, and
    3. Peter Glick

    . 2008. “Warmth and Competence as Universal Dimensions of Social Perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the BIAS Map.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 40: 61–149.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
18. ↵
    1. Cullen, Jim

    . 2003. The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea That Shaped a Nation. New York: Oxford University Press.
19. ↵
    1. DiMaggio, Paul

    . 1982. “Cultural Capital and School Success: The Impact of Status Culture Participation on the Grades of U.S. High School Students.” American Sociological Review 47(2): 189–201.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
20. ↵
    1. Dippong, Joseph, and
    2. Will Kalkhoff

    . 2015. “Predicting Performance Expectations from Affective Impressions: Linking Affect Control Theory and Status Characteristics Theory.” Social Science Research 50(3): 1–14.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
21. ↵
    1. DiPrete, Thomas A., and
    2. Gregory M. Eirich

    . 2006. “Cumulative Advantage as a Mechanism for Inequality: A Review of Theoretical and Empirical Developments.” Annual Review of Sociology 32(1): 271–97.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
22. ↵
    1. Doan, Long,
    2. Natasha Quadlin, and
    3. Brian Powell

    . 2019. “Americans’ Perceptions of Transgender People’s Sex: Evidence from a National Survey Experiment.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 5: 1–15.

    OpenUrl
23. ↵
    1. Dynarski, Susan

    . 2015. “For the Poor, the Graduation Gap Is Even Wider Than the Enrollment Gap.” New York Times, June 2. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/02/upshot/for-the-poor-the-graduation-gap-is-even-wider-than-the-enrollment-gap.html.
24. ↵
    1. Eagly, Alice H., and
    2. Linda L. Carli

    . 2007. Through the Labyrinth: The Truth About How Women Become Leaders. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press.
25. ↵
    1. Erikson, Robert, and
    2. John H. Goldthorpe

    . 2002. “Intergenerational Inequality: A Sociological Perspective.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(3): 31–44.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
26. ↵
    1. Ermish, John,
    2. Markus Jäntti, and
    3. Timothy M. Smeeding

    , eds. 2012. From Parents to Children: The Intergenerational Transmission of Advantage. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
27. ↵
    1. Espenshade, Thomas J. and
    2. Chang Y. Chung

    . 2005. “The Opportunity Cost of Admission Preferences at Elite Universities.” Social Science Quarterly 86(2): 293–305.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
28. ↵
    1. Fiske, Susan T.,
    2. Amy J. C. Cuddy,
    3. Peter Glick, and
    4. Jun Xu

    . 2002. “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82(6): 878–902.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
29. ↵
    1. Gaddis, S. Michael

    . 2017a. “How Black Are Lakisha and Jamal? Racial Perceptions from Names Used in Correspondence Audit Studies.” Sociological Science 4: 469–89.

    OpenUrl
30. ↵
    1. Gaddis, S. Michael

    . 2017b. “Racial/Ethnic Perceptions from Hispanic Names: Selecting Names to Test for Discrimination.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 3: 1–11.

    OpenUrl
31. ↵
    1. Galperin, Roman V.,
    2. Oliver Hahl,
    3. Adina D. Sterling, and
    4. Jerry Guo

    . 2020. “Too Good to Hire? Capability and Inferences about Commitment in Labor Markets.” Administrative Science Quarterly 65(2): 275–313.

    OpenUrl
32. ↵
    1. Glick, Peter, and
    2. Susan T. Fiske

    . 1996. “The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(3): 491–512.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
33. ↵
    1. Hamilton, Darrick, and
    2. William Darity

    . 2010. “Can ‘Baby Bonds’ Eliminate the Racial Wealth Gap in Putative Post-Racial America?” Review of Black Political Economy 37: 207–16.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
34. ↵
    1. Hochschild, Jennifer L

    . 1995. Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
35. ↵
    1. Hout, Michael

    . 2018. “Americans’ Occupational Status Reflects the Status of Both of Their Parents.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(38): 9527–32.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
36. ↵
    1. Jaschik, Scott

    . 2021. “Legacy Admissions Banned in Colorado.” Admissions Insider, June 1. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2021/06/01/colorado-bars-public-colleges-using-legacy-admissions.
37. ↵
    1. Jost, John T.,
    2. Mahzarin R. Banaji, and
    3. Brian A. Nosek

    . 2004. “A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo.” Political Psychology 25(6): 881–919.

    OpenUrl
38. ↵
    1. Kim, ChangHwan,
    2. Christopher R. Tamborini, and
    3. Arthur Sakamoto

    . 2015. “Field of Study in College and Lifetime Earnings in the United States.” Sociology of Education 88(4): 320–39.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
39. ↵
    1. Kluegel, James R., and
    2. Eliot R. Smith

    . 1986. Beliefs About Inequality: Americans’ Views of What Is and What Ought to Be. New York: Routledge.
40. ↵
    1. Koenig, Biko

    . 2022. “Politicizing Status Loss Among Trump Supporters in 2020.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 8(6): 69–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2022.8.6.04.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Massey, Douglas S.,
    2. Camille Z. Charles,
    3. Garvey Lundy, and
    4. Mary J. Fischer

    . 2011. The Source of the River: The Social Origins of Freshmen at America’s Selective Colleges and Universities. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
42. ↵
    1. McCall, Leslie

    . 2013. The Undeserving Rich: American Beliefs About Inequality, Opportunity, and Redistribution. New York: Cambridge University Press.
43. ↵
    1. McCall, Leslie,
    2. Derek Burk,
    3. Marie Laperrière, and
    4. Jennifer A. Richeson

    . 2017. “Exposure to Rising Inequality Shapes Americans’ Opportunity Beliefs and Policy Support.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(36): 9593–98.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
44. ↵
    1. McNamee, Stephen J., and
    2. Robert K. Miller

    . 2009. The Meritocracy Myth, 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
45. ↵
    1. Medina, Jennifer,
    2. Katie Benner, and
    3. Kate Taylor

    . 2019. “Actresses, Business Leaders and Other Wealthy Parents Charged in U.S. College Entry Fraud.” New York Times, March 12. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/12/us/college-admissions-cheating-scandal.html.
46. ↵
    1. Merton, Robert K

    . 1968. “The Matthew Effect in Science: The Reward and Communication Systems of Science Are Considered.” Science 159(3810): 56–63.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
47. ↵
    1. Mijs, Jonathan J. B

    . 2021. “The Paradox of Inequality: Income Inequality and Belief in Meritocracy Go Hand in Hand.” Socio-Economic Review 19(1): 7–35.

    OpenUrl
48. ↵
    1. O’Brien, Timothy L., and
    2. Shiri Noy

    . 2020. “Political Identity and Confidence in Science and Religion in the United States.” Sociology of Religion 81(4): 439–61.

    OpenUrl
49. ↵
    1. Owens, Ann

    . 2018. “Income Segregation Between School Districts and Inequality in Students’ Achievement.” Sociology of Education 91(1): 1–27.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
50. ↵
    1. Pedulla, David S

    . 2014. “The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process.” Social Psychology Quarterly 77(1): 75–94.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
51. ↵
    1. Pfeffer, Fabian T

    . 2008. “Persistent Inequality in Educational Attainment and Its Institutional Context.” European Sociological Review 24(5): 543–65.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
52. ↵
    1. Pfeffer, Fabian T., and
    2. Alexandra Killewald

    . 2018. “Generations of Advantage. Multigenerational Correlations in Family Wealth.” Social Forces 96(4): 1411–42.

    OpenUrl
53. ↵
    1. Quadlin, Natasha

    . 2018. “The Mark of a Woman’s Record: Gender and Academic Performance in Hiring.” American Sociological Review 83: 331–60.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
54. ↵
    1. Quadlin, Natasha

    . 2019a. Perceptions of Intelligence, Privilege, and Kindness Among Recent College Graduates (data set). Redwood City, Calif.: YouGov.
55. ↵
    1. Quadlin, Natasha

    . 2019b. “Sibling Achievement, Sibling Gender, and Beliefs about Parental Investment: Evidence from a National Survey Experiment.” Social Forces 97(4): 1603–30.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. Quadlin, Natasha, and
    2. Jordan A. Conwell

    . 2021. “Race, Gender, and Parental College Savings: Assessing Economic and Academic Factors.” Sociology of Education 94(1): 20–42.

    OpenUrl
57. ↵
    1. Quadlin, Natasha, and
    2. Brian Powell

    . 2022. Who Should Pay? Higher Education, Responsibility, and the Public. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
58. ↵
    1. Ray, Rashawn

    . 2017. “Black People Don’t Exercise in My Neighborhood: Perceived Racial Composition and Leisure-Time Physical Activity Among Middle Class Blacks and Whites.” Social Science Research 66: 42–57.

    OpenUrl
59. ↵
    1. Reardon, Sean F

    . 2011. “The Widening Academic Achievement Gap Between the Rich and the Poor: New Evidence and Possible Explanations.” In Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances, edited by Greg J. Duncan and Robert J. Murnane. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
60. ↵
    1. Ridgeway, Cecilia L

    . 2011. Framed by Gender: How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World. New York: Oxford University Press.
61. ↵
    1. Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and
    2. Shelley J. Correll

    . 2004. “Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations.” Gender & Society 18(4): 510–31.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
62. ↵
    1. Risman, Barbara J., and
    2. Myra Marx Ferree

    . 1995. “Making Gender Visible.” American Sociological Review 60(5): 775–82.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
63. ↵
    1. Rivera, Lauren A

    . 2015. Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
64. ↵
    1. Schachter, Ariela

    . 2016. “From ‘Different’ to ‘Similar’: An Experimental Approach to Understanding Assimilation.” American Sociological Review 81(5): 981–1013.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
65. ↵
    1. Sewell, William H.,
    2. Archibald O. Haller, and
    3. Alejandro Portes

    . 1969. “The Educational and Early Occupational Attainment Process.” American Sociological Review 34(1): 82–92.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
66. ↵
    1. Stevens, Mitchell L

    . 2009. Creating a Class: College Admissions and the Education of Elites. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
67. ↵
    1. Streib, Jessi

    . 2020. Privilege Lost: Who Leaves the Upper Middle Class and How They Fall. New York: Oxford University Press.
68. ↵
    1. Valentino, Lauren

    . 2020. “The Segregation Premium: How Gender Shapes the Symbolic Valuation Process of Occupational Prestige Judgments.” Social Forces 99(1): 31–58.

    OpenUrl
69. ↵
    1. VanHeuvelen, Tom, and
    2. Natasha Quadlin

    . 2021. “Gender Inequality in STEM Employment and Earnings at Career Entry: Evidence from Millennial Birth Cohorts.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 7: 1–15. First published online: December 11, 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231211064392.

    OpenUrl
70. ↵
    1. Weisshaar, Katherine,
    2. Koji Chavez, and
    3. Tania Cabello-Hutt

    . 2020. “An Imperfect Match? How Gender and Race Influence Perceptions of Underqualified Job Applicants.” Paper presented at the virtual annual meeting of the Population Association of America, April 23–25, 2020.
71. ↵
    1. Wildeman, Christopher,
    2. Kris Scardamalia,
    3. Elizabeth G. Walsh,
    4. Rourke L. O’Brien, and
    5. Bridget Brew

    . 2017. “Paternal Incarceration and Teachers’ Expectations of Students.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 3: 1–14.

    OpenUrl
72. ↵
    1. Young, Michael

    . 1958. The Rise of the Meritocracy. New York: Transaction Publishers.