How Ethnoracial Groups Spend Their Time

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. American Psychological Association

   . 2016. “Discrimination Linked to Increased Stress, Poorer Health.” Press Release. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Accessed April 18, 2024. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/03/impact-of-discrimination.
2. ↵
   1. Bianchi, Suzanne M.,
   2. Melissa A. Milkie,
   3. Liana C. Sayer, and
   4. John P. Robinson

   . 2000. “Is Anyone Doing the Housework? Trends in the Gender Division of Household Labor.” Social Forces 79(1): 191–228.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
3. ↵
   1. Bianchi, Suzanne M.,
   2. Liana C. Sayer,
   3. Melissa A. Milkie, and
   4. John P. Robinson

   . 2012. “Housework: Who Did, Does or Will Do It, and How Much Does It Matter?” Social Forces 91(1): 55–63.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
4. ↵
   1. Billings, Martha E.,
   2. Robyn T. Cohen,
   3. Carol M. Baldwin,
   4. Dayna A. Johnson,
   5. Brian N. Palen,
   6. Sairam Parthasarathy,
   7. Sanjay R. Patel, et al

   . 2021. “Disparities in Sleep Health and Potential Intervention Models: A Focused Review.” Chest 159(3): 1232–40.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
5. ↵
   1. Bloome, Deirdre, and
   2. Bruce Western

   . 2011. “Cohort Change and Racial Differences in Educational and Income Mobility.” Social Forces 90(2): 375–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sor002.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
6. ↵
   1. Brown, Lauren L.,
   2. Uchechi A. Mitchell, and
   3. Jennifer A. Ailshire

   . 2020. “Disentangling the Stress Process: Race/Ethnic Differences in the Exposure and Appraisal of Chronic Stressors Among Older Adults.” The Journals of Gerontology: Series B 75(3): 650–60.

   OpenUrlPubMed
7. ↵
   1. Buchanan, Tom,
   2. Adian McFarlane, and
   3. Anupam Das

   . 2024. “Gender Differences in Desired Alone Time Among Canadian Parents of Young Children.” Applied Research in Quality of Life 19(1): 1–19.

   OpenUrl
8. ↵
   1. Colen, Cynthia G.,
   2. Kelsey J. Drotning,
   3. Liana C. Sayer, and
   4. Bruce Link

   . 2023. “A Matter of Time: Racialized Time and the Production of Health Disparities.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 65(12): 00221465231182377.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Cornwell, Benjamin,
   2. Jonathan Gershuny, and
   3. Oriel Sullivan

   . 2019. “The Social Structure of Time: Emerging Trends and New Directions.” Annual Review of Sociology 45(1): 301–20.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
10. ↵
    1. Curtis, Chadwick,
    2. Julio Garín, and
    3. Robert Lester

    . 2022. “Working, Consuming, and Dying: Quantifying the Diversity in the American Experience.” Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control 138 (May): 104357.

    OpenUrl
11. ↵
    1. Danvers, Alexander F.,
    2. Liliane D. Efinger,
    3. Matthias R. Mehl,
    4. Peter J. Helm,
    5. Charles L. Raison,
    6. Angelina J. Polsinelli,
    7. Suzanne A. Moseley, and
    8. David A. Sbarra

    . 2023. “Loneliness and Time Alone in Everyday Life: A Descriptive-Exploratory Study of Subjective and Objective Social Isolation.” Journal of Research in Personality 107 (December): 104426.

    OpenUrl
12. ↵
    1. Derenoncourt, Ellora,
    2. Chi Hyun Kim,
    3. Moritz Kuhn, and
    4. Moritz Schularick

    . 2022. “Wealth of Two Nations: The U.S. Racial Wealth Gap, 1860–2020.” Working Paper no. 30101. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Accessed April 18, 2024. https://www.nber.org/papers/w30101.
13. ↵
    1. Dukhovnov, Denys, and
    2. Emilio Zagheni

    . 2015. “Who Takes Care of Whom in the United States? Time Transfers by Age and Sex.” Population and Development Review 41(2): 183–206.

    OpenUrlPubMed
14. ↵
    1. Fisher, Kimberley,
    2. Jonathan Gershuny,
    3. Sarah M. Flood,
    4. Joan Garcia Roman, and
    5. Sandra L. Hofferth

    . 2018. “American Heritage Time Use Survey Data Extract Builder: Version 1.2 [dataset].” Minneapolis, Minn: IPUMS. https://doi.org/10.18128/D061.V1.2.
15. ↵
    1. Flood, Sarah M.,
    2. Liana C. Sayer,
    3. Daniel Backman, and
    4. Annie Chen

    . 2023. “American Time Use Survey Data Extract Builder: Version 3.2 [dataset].” College Park: University of Maryland and Minneapolis, Minn.: IPUMS. https://doi.org/10.18128/D060.V3.2.
16. ↵
    1. Ford, Tiffany N.,
    2. Jennifer M. Silva,
    3. Morgan Welch, and
    4. Isabel V. Sawhill

    . 2021. “No Time to Spare: Exploring the Middle Class Time Squeeze.” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. Accessed April 18, 2024. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/no-time-to-spare-exploring-the-middle-class-time-squeeze.
17. ↵
    1. Friedman, Alexander,
    2. Daigo Homma,
    3. Bernard Bloem,
    4. Leif G. Gibb,
    5. Ken-ichi Amemori,
    6. Dan Hu,
    7. Sebastien Delcasso, et al

    . 2017. “Chronic Stress Alters Striosome-Circuit Dynamics, Leading to Aberrant Decision-Making.” Cell 171(5): 1191–205.e28.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
18. ↵
    1. Gee, Gilbert C.,
    2. Anna Hing,
    3. Selina Mohammed,
    4. Derrick C. Tabor, and
    5. David R. Williams

    . 2019. “Racism and the Life Course: Taking Time Seriously.” American Journal of Public Health 109 (S1): S43–47.

    OpenUrlPubMed
19. ↵
    1. Goldin, Claudia

    . 2014. “A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter.” American Economic Review 104(4): 1091–119.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
20. ↵
    1. Groshen, Erica L., and
    2. Harry J. Holzer

    . 2021. “Labor Market Trends and Outcomes: What Has Changed Since the Great Recession?” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 695(1): 49–69.

    OpenUrl
21. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela,
    2. Hilary Hoynes,
    3. Jamila Michener, and
    4. Donald Moynihan

    . 2023. “Introduction: Administrative Burden as a Mechanism of Inequality in Policy Implementation.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 1–30. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.01.

    OpenUrl
22. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela, and
    2. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2019. Administrative Burden: Policymaking by Other Means. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
23. ↵
    1. Hofferth, Sandra L.,
    2. Sarah M. Flood,
    3. Matthew Sobek, and
    4. Daniel Backman

    . 2022. “American Time Use Survey Data Extract Builder: Version 3.1 [dataset].” IPUMS. College Park: University of Maryland and Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. https://doi.org/10.18128/D060.V3.1.
24. ↵
    1. Holt, Stephen B., and
    2. Katie Vinopal

    . 2023. “Examining Inequality in the Time Cost of Waiting.” Nature Human Behaviour 7(4): 545–55.

    OpenUrlPubMed
25. ↵
    1. Hornbuckle, Lyndsey M

    . 2021. “Running While Black: A Distinctive Safety Concern and Barrier to Exercise in White Neighborhoods.” Preventive Medicine Reports 22 (June): 101378.

    OpenUrlPubMed
26. ↵
    1. Ice, Erin

    . 2023. “Bringing Family Demography Back In: A Life Course Approach to the Gender Gap in Caregiving in the United States.” Social Forces 101(3): 1143–70.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Jackson, Dylan B.,
    2. Juan Del Toro,
    3. Daniel C. Semenza,
    4. Alexander Testa, and
    5. Michael G. Vaughn

    . 2021. “Unpacking Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Emotional Distress Among Adolescents During Witnessed Police Stops.” Journal of Adolescent Health 69(2): 248–54.

    OpenUrlPubMed
28. ↵
    1. Jackson, Michelle

    . 2020. Manifesto for a Dream: Inequality, Constraint, and Radical Reform. Redwood City, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
29. ↵
    1. Kahneman, Daniel, and
    2. Alan B. Krueger

    . 2006. “Developments in the Measurement of Subjective Well-Being.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(1): 3–24.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
30. ↵
    1. Katz, Michael B.,
    2. Mark J. Stern, and
    3. Jamie J. Fader

    . 2005. “The New African American Inequality.” Journal of American History 92(1): 75–108. https://doi.org/10.2307/3660526.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
31. ↵
    1. Kephart, Lindsay

    . 2022. “How Racial Residential Segregation Structures Access and Exposure to Greenness and Green Space: A Review.” Environmental Justice 15(4): 204–13.

    OpenUrl
32. ↵
    1. Krueger, Alan B

    . 2007. “Are We Having More Fun Yet? Categorizing and Evaluating Changes in Time Allocation.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2007(2): 193–215.

    OpenUrl
33. ↵
    1. Krueger, Alan B.,
    2. Daniel Kahneman,
    3. David Schkade,
    4. Norbert Schwarz, and
    5. Arthur A. Stone

    . 2009. “National Time Accounting: The Currency of Life.” In Measuring the Subjective Well-Being of Nations: National Accounts of Time Use and Well-Being, edited by Alan B. Kreuger, 9–86. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
34. ↵
    1. Kwate, Naa Oyo A

    . 2017. “The Race Against Time: Lived Time, Time Loss, and Black Health Opportunity.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 14(2): 497–514.

    OpenUrl
35. ↵
    1. Larson, Reed W

    . 1990. “The Solitary Side of Life: An Examination of the Time People Spend Alone from Childhood to Old Age.” Developmental Review 10(2): 155–83.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Lincoln, Karen D.,
    2. Robert Joseph Taylor,
    3. Linda M. Chatters, and
    4. Sean Joe

    . 2012. “Suicide, Negative Interaction and Emotional Support Among Black Americans.” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 47(12): 1947–58.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
37. ↵
    1. Logan, John R

    . 2013. “The Persistence of Segregation in the 21st Century Metropolis.” City & Community 12(2): 160–68.

    OpenUrl
38. ↵
    1. Long, Christopher R., and
    2. James R. Averill

    . 2003. “Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 33(1): 21–44.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
39. ↵
    1. McCrate, Elaine

    . 2012. “Flexibility for Whom? Control over Work Schedule Variability in the US.” Feminist Economics 18(1): 39–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.660179.

    OpenUrl
40. ↵
    1. McLafferty, Sara, and
    2. Valerie Preston

    . 2019. “Who Has Long Commutes to Low-Wage Jobs? Gender, Race, and Access to Work in the New York Region.” Urban Geography 40(9): 1270–90.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Nguyen, Thuy-vy T.,
    2. Richard M. Ryan, and
    3. Edward L. Deci

    . 2018. “Solitude as an Approach to Affective Self-Regulation.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44(1): 92–106.

    OpenUrlPubMed
42. ↵
    1. Park, Hyunjoon,
    2. Matthew Sheen, and
    3. Paula Clark

    . 2025. “Living Alone for Black and White Men and Women: Changes over Four Decades, 1980–2019.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(2): 26–45. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.2.02.

    OpenUrl
43. ↵
    1. Permanyer, Iñaki,
    2. Isaac Sasson, and
    3. Francisco Villavicencio

    . 2023. “Group- and Individual-Based Approaches to Health Inequality: Towards an Integration.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A: Statistics in Society 186(2): 217–40.

    OpenUrl
44. ↵
    1. Perry-Jenkins, Maureen, and
    2. Naomi Gerstel

    . 2020. “Work and Family in the Second Decade of the 21st Century.” Journal of Marriage and Family 82(1): 420–53.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
45. ↵
    1. Ray, Rashawn

    . 2017. “Black People Don’t Exercise in My Neighborhood: Perceived Racial Composition and Leisure-Time Physical Activity among Middle Class Blacks and Whites.” Social Science Research 66 (August): 42–57.

    OpenUrlPubMed
46. ↵
    1. Reardon, Sean F., and
    2. Ann Owens

    . 2014. “60 Years After Brown: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation.” Annual Review of Sociology 40(1): 199–218.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
47. ↵
    1. Robinson, John P

    . 2013. “As We (Still) like It: Socializing, Religion, Kids Remain Our Favourite Daily Activities.” Working paper no. PWP-MPRC-2013-204. College Park: Maryland Population Research Center.
48. ↵
    1. Salganik, Matthew J.,
    2. Ian Lundberg,
    3. Alexander T. Kindel,
    4. Caitlin E. Ahearn,
    5. Khaled Al-Ghoneim,
    6. Abdullah Almaatouq,
    7. Drew M. Altschul, et al

    . 2020. “Measuring the Predictability of Life Outcomes with a Scientific Mass Collaboration.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(15): 8398–8403.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
49. ↵
    1. Sayer, Liana C

    . 2016. “Trends in Women’s and Men’s Time Use, 1965–2012: Back to the Future?” In Gender and Couple Relationships, edited by Susan M. McHale, Valarie King, Jennifer Van Hook, and Alan Booth, 43–77. National Symposium on Family Issues. Cham: Springer International.
50. ↵
    1. Sayer, Liana C., and
    2. Leigh Fine

    . 2011. “Racial-Ethnic Differences in U.S. Married Women’s and Men’s Housework.” Social Indicators Research 101(2): 259–65.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
51. ↵
    1. Schuetz, Jenny,
    2. Jed Kolko, and
    3. Rachel Meltzer

    . 2012. “Are Poor Neighborhoods ‘Retail Deserts’?” Regional Science and Urban Economics 42(1): 269–85.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
52. ↵
    1. Sevilla, Almudena,
    2. Jose I. Gimenez-Nadal, and
    3. Jonathan Gershuny

    . 2012. “Leisure Inequality in the United States: 1965–2003.” Demography 49(3): 939–64.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
53. ↵
    1. Silverstein, Merril, and
    2. Linda J. Waite

    . 1993. “Are Blacks More Likely Than Whites to Receive and Provide Social Support in Middle and Old Age? Yes, No, and Maybe So.” Journal of Gerontology 48(4): S212–22.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
54. ↵
    1. Sternthal, Michelle J.,
    2. Natalie Slopen, and
    3. David R. Williams

    . 2011. “Racial Disparities in Health: How Much Does Stress Really Matter?” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 8(1): 95–113.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
55. ↵
    1. Thomas Tobin, Courtney S.,
    2. Christy L. Erving,
    3. Taylor W. Hargrove, and
    4. Lacee A. Satcher

    . 2022. “Is the Black-White Mental Health Paradox Consistent across Age, Gender, and Psychiatric Disorders?” Aging & Mental Health 26(1): 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1855627.

    OpenUrlPubMed
56. ↵
    1. Trieu, Monica M

    . 2016. “Family Obligation Fulfillment Among Southeast Asian American Young Adults.” Journal of Family Issues 37(10): 1355–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14551174.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
57. ↵
    1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

    . 2014. “American Time Use Survey (ATUS) Data Dictionary: 2010, 2012, and 2013 Well-Being Module Data.” July. Accessed April 22, 2024. https://www.bls.gov/tus/dictionaries/wbmintcodebk.pdf.
58. ↵
    1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

    . 2017. “American Time Use Survey Well-Being Module Microdata Files.” Last modified December 7, 2017. Accessed April 22, 2024. https://www.bls.gov/tus/data/wbdatafiles_1013.htm.
59. ↵
    1. Weeden, Kim A.,
    2. Youngjoo Cha, and
    3. Mauricio Bucca

    . 2016. “Long Work Hours, Part-Time Work, and Trends in the Gender Gap in Pay, the Motherhood Wage Penalty, and the Fatherhood Wage Premium.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 2(4): 71–102. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2016.2.4.03.

    OpenUrl
60. ↵
    1. Williams, David R

    . 2018. “Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-Related Stressors.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59(4): 466–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518814251.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
61. ↵
    1. Wilson, George,
    2. Ian Sakura-Lemessy, and
    3. Jonathan P. West

    . 1999. “Reaching the Top: Racial Differences in Mobility Paths to Upper-Tier Occupations.” Work and Occupations 26(2): 165–86.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
62. ↵
    1. Zenk, Shannon N.,
    2. Amy J. Schulz,
    3. Barbara A. Israel,
    4. Sherman A. James,
    5. Shuming Bao, and
    6. Mark L. Wilson

    . 2005. “Neighborhood Racial Composition, Neighborhood Poverty, and the Spatial Accessibility of Supermarkets in Metropolitan Detroit.” American Journal of Public Health 95(4): 660–67.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science