Introduction: Administrative Burden as a Mechanism of Inequality in Policy Implementation

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Aiken, Claudia,
   2. Ingrid Gould Ellen, and
   3. Vincent Reina

   . 2023. “Administrative Burdens in Emergency Rental Assistance Programs.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 100–121. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.05.

   OpenUrl
2. ↵
   1. Ali, Sameen A. Mohsin, and
   2. Samia W. Altaf

   . 2021. “Citizen Trust, Administrative Capacity and Administrative Burden in Pakistan’s Immunization Program.” Journal of Behavioral Public Administration 4(1): 1–17.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Arbogast, Iris,
   2. Anna Chorniy, and
   3. Janet Currie

   . 2022. “Administrative Burdens and Child Medicaid Enrollments.” No. w30580. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30580/w30580.pdf.
4. ↵
   1. Badger, Emily, and
   2. Alicia Parlapiano

   . 2020. “States Made It Harder to Get Jobless Benefits. Now That’s Hard to Undo.” New York Times, April 30. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/30/upshot/unemployment-state-restrictions-pandemic.html.
5. ↵
   1. Baekgaard, Martin,
   2. Donald P. Moynihan, and
   3. Mette Kjærgaard Thomsen

   . 2021. “Why Do Policymakers Support Administrative Burdens? The Roles of Deservingness, Political Ideology and Personal Experience.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 31(1): 184–200.

   OpenUrl
6. ↵
   1. Barnes, Carolyn

   . 2021. “‘It Takes a While to Get Used to’: The Costs of Redeeming Public Benefits.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 31(2): 295–310.

   OpenUrl
7. ↵
   1. Barnes, Carolyn,
   2. Sarah Halpern-Meekin, and
   3. Jill Hoiting

   . 2023. “‘I Used to Get WIC . . . But Then I Stopped’: How WIC Participants Perceive the Value and Burdens of Maintaining Benefits.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 32–55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.02.

   OpenUrl
8. ↵
   1. Barnes, Carolyn, and
   2. Sarah Petry

   . 2021. “‘It Was Actually Pretty Easy’: COVID-19 Compliance Cost Reductions in the WIC Program.” Public Administration Review 81(6): 1147–56.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Bell, Elizabeth,
   2. Julian Christensen,
   3. Pamela Herd, and
   4. Donald Moynihan

   . 2022. “Health in Citizen-State Interactions: How Physical and Mental Health Problems Shape Experiences of Administrative Burden and Reduce Take-Up.” Public Administration Review. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13568.
10. ↵
    1. Bell, Elizabeth,
    2. Ani Ter-Mkrtchyan,
    3. Wesley Wehde, and
    4. Kylie Smith

    . 2021. “Just or Unjust? How Ideological Beliefs Shape Street-level Bureaucrats’ Perceptions of Administrative Burden.” Public Administration Review 81(4): 610–24.

    OpenUrl
11. ↵
    1. Bettinger, Eric P.,
    2. Bridget Terry Long,
    3. Philip Oreopoulos, and
    4. Lisa Sanbonmatsu

    . 2012. “The Role of Application Assistance and Information in College Decisions: Results from the H&R Block FAFSA Experiment.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 127(3): 1205–42.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Bhargava, Saurabh, and
    2. Dayanand Manoli

    . 2015. “Psychological Frictions and the Incomplete Take-up of Social Benefits: Evidence from an IRS Field Experiment.” American Economic Review 105(11): 3489–529.

    OpenUrl
13. ↵
    1. Bitler, Marianne,
    2. Hilary W. Hoynes, and
    3. Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach

    . 2020. “The Social Safety Net in the Wake of COVID-19.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Summer 2020, 119–45.
14. ↵
    1. Bouek, Jennifer W

    . 2023. “The Wait List as Redistributive Policy: Access and Burdens in the Subsidized Childcare System.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 76–97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.04.

    OpenUrl
15. ↵
    1. Bozeman, Barry

    . 2000. Bureaucracy and Red Tape. New York: Prentice Hall.
16. ↵
    1. Braconnier, Céline,
    2. Jean-Yves Dormagen, and
    3. Vincent Pons

    . 2017. “Voter Registration Costs and Disenfranchisement: Experimental Evidence from France.” American Political Science Review 111(3): 584–604.

    OpenUrl
17. ↵
    1. Brown, Hana E

    . 2023. “Administrative Burden and the Reproduction of Settler Colonialism: A Case Study of the Indian Child Welfare Act.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 232–51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.10.

    OpenUrl
18. ↵
    1. Center for Budget and Policy Priorities

    . 2019. “The Earned Income Tax Credit.” Accessed April 24, 2023. https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/policybasics-eitc.pdf.
19. ↵
    1. Center for Budget and Policy Priorities

    . 2021. “Chart Book: Social Security Disability Insurance.” Accessed April 24, 2023. https://www.cbpp.org/research/social-security/social-security-disability-insurance-0.
20. ↵
    1. Christensen, Julian,
    2. Lene Aarøe,
    3. Martin Baekgaard,
    4. Pamela Herd, and
    5. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2020. “Human Capital and Administrative Burden: The Role of Cognitive Resources in Citizen-State Interactions.” Public Administration Review 80(1): 127–36.

    OpenUrl
21. ↵
    1. Compton, Mallory E.,
    2. Matthew M. Young,
    3. Justin B. Bullock, and
    4. Robert Greer

    . 2022. “Administrative Errors and Race: Can Technology Mitigate Inequitable Administrative Outcomes?” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muac036.
22. ↵
    1. Creamer, John,
    2. Emily A. Shrider,
    3. Kalee Burns, and
    4. Frances Chen

    . 2022. “Current Population Reports, P60-277, Poverty in the United States: 2021.” September. Washington: U.S. Government Publishing Office.
23. ↵
    1. Currie, Janet

    . 2004. “The Take Up of Social Benefits.” NBER working paper no. 10488 Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.
24. ↵
    1. DeLuca, Stefanie,
    2. Lawrence F. Katz, and
    3. Sarah C. Oppenheimer

    . 2023. “‘When Someone Cares About You, It’s Priceless’: Reducing Administrative Burdens and Boosting Housing Search Confidence to Increase Opportunity Moves for Voucher Holders.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 179–211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.08.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Deshpande, Manasi, and
    2. Yue Li

    . 2019. “Who is Screened Out? Application Costs and the Targeting of Disability Programs.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 11(4): 213–48.

    OpenUrl
26. ↵
    1. Dynarski, Susan,
    2. C. J. Libassi,
    3. Katherine Michelmore, and
    4. Stephanie Owen

    . 2021. “Closing the Gap: The Effect of a Targeted, Tuition-Free Promise on College Choices of High-Achieving, Low-Income Students.” American Economic Review 111(6): 1721–56.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Edwards, Frank,
    2. Kelley Fong,
    3. Victoria Copeland,
    4. Mical Raz, and
    5. Alan Dettlaff

    . 2023. “Administrative Burdens in Child Welfare Systems.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 214–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.09.

    OpenUrl
28. ↵
    1. Esping-Andersen, Gøsta

    , ed. 1993. Stratification and Mobility in Post-Industrial Societies. London: Sage Publications.
29. ↵
    1. Eubanks, Virginia

    . 2018. Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
30. ↵
    1. Executive Office of the President

    . 2021. “Executive Order on Transforming Federal Customer Experience and Service Delivery to Rebuild Trust in Government.” Executive Order 14058. Federal Register 86(239) (December 16): 71357–66. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/12/13/executive-order-on-transforming-federal-customer-experience-and-service-delivery-to-rebuild-trust-in-government/.

    OpenUrl
31. ↵
    1. Executive Office of the President

    . 2022. “Improving Access to Public Benefits Programs Through the Paperwork Reduction Act.” Memorandum M-22-10, April 13. Washington: Office of Management and Budget. Accessed June 3, 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/M-22-10.pdf.
32. ↵
    1. Fineout, Gary, and
    2. Marc Caputo

    . 2020. “‘It’s a Sh– Sandwich’: Republicans Rage as Florida Becomes a Nightmare for Trump.” Politico, April 3. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.politico.com/states/florida/story/2020/04/03/its-a-sh-sandwich-republicans-rage-as-florida-becomes-a-nightmare-for-trump-1271172.
33. ↵
    1. Finkelstein, Amy, and
    2. Matthew J. Notowidigdo

    . 2019. “Take-Up and Targeting: Experimental Evidence from SNAP.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 134(3): 1505–56.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
34. ↵
    1. Frederick, Shane,
    2. George Loewenstein, and
    3. Ted O’Donoghue

    . 2002. “Time Discounting and Time Preference: A Critical Review.” Journal of Economic Literature 40(2): 351–401.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
35. ↵
    1. Freed, Meredith,
    2. Jeannie Fugelsten Biniek,
    3. Anthony Damico, and
    4. Tricia Neuman

    . 2022. “Medicare Advantage in 2022: Enrollment Update and Key Trends.” San Francisco, Calif.: Kaiser Family Foundation. Accessed February 6, 2023. https://www.kff.org/medicare/issue-brief/a-dozen-facts-about-medicare-advantage-in-2020.
36. ↵
    1. Geller, Daniel,
    2. Julia Isaacs,
    3. Breno Braga, and
    4. Borjan Zic

    . 2018. “Exploring the Causes of State Variation in SNAP Administrative Costs.” Prepared by Manhattan Strategy Group and the Urban Institute for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, February 2019. www.fns.usda.gov/research-and-analysis.
37. ↵
    1. Goldstein, Adam,
    2. Charlie Eaton,
    3. Amber Villalobos,
    4. Parijat Chakrabarti,
    5. Jeremy Cohen, and
    6. Katie Donnelly

    . 2023. “Administrative Burden in Federal Student Loan Repayment, and Socially Stratified Access to Income-Driven Repayment Plans.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(4): 86–111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.4.04.

    OpenUrl
38. ↵
    1. Gould-Werth, Alix, and
    2. H. Luke Shaefer

    . 2012. “Unemployment Insurance Participation by Education and by Race and Ethnicity.” Monthly Labor Review 135(10): 28–41.

    OpenUrl
39. ↵
    1. Greenstein, Robert

    . 2022. “Targeting vs. Universalism, and Other Factors that Affect Social Programs Strength and Durability.” Hamilton Project Framing Paper, August. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. Accessed December 19, 2022. https://www.hamiltonproject.org/assets/files/20220806_ES_THP_SocialPrograms_ExpandedEdition.pdf.
40. ↵
    1. Grumbach, Jacob M., and
    2. Charlotte Hill

    . 2021. “Rock the Registration: Same Day Registration Increases Turnout of Young Voters.” Journal of Politics 84(1): 405–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/714776.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Hahn, Heather,
    2. Laudan Aron,
    3. Cary Lou,
    4. Eleanor Pratt, and
    5. Adaeze Okoli

    . 2017. “Why Does Cash Welfare Depend on Where You Live? How and Why State TANF Programs Vary.” Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/why-does-cash-welfare-depend-where-you-live.
42. ↵
    1. Halpern-Meekin, Kathryn Edin,
    2. Laura Tach, and
    3. Jennifer Sykes

    . 2015. It’s Not Like I’m Poor: How Working Families Make Ends Meet in a Post-Welfare World. Oakland: University of California Press.
43. ↵
    1. Hanoch, Yaniv, and
    2. Thomas Rice

    . 2006. “Can Limiting Choice Increase Social Welfare? The Elderly and Health Insurance.” Milbank Quarterly 84(1): 37–73.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
44. ↵
    1. Hardy, Bradley L.,
    2. Rhucha Samudra, and
    3. Jourdan A. Davis

    . 2019. “Cash Assistance in America: The Role of Race, Politics, and Poverty.” Review of Black Political Economy 46(4): 1–19.

    OpenUrl
45. ↵
    1. Harrington Meyer, Madonna,
    2. Douglas A. Wolf, and
    3. Christine L. Himes

    . 2006. “Declining Eligibility for Social Security Spouse and Widow Benefits in the United States?” Research on Aging 28(2): 240–60.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
46. ↵
    1. Hattke, Fabian,
    2. David Hensel, and
    3. Janne Kalucza

    . 2020. “Emotional Responses to Bureaucratic Red Tape.” Public Administration Review 80(1): 53–63.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Heinrich, Carolyn J

    . 2016. “The Bite of Administrative Burden: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 26(3): 403–20.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
48. ↵
    1. Heinrich, Carolyn J.,
    2. Sayil Camacho,
    3. Sarah Clark Henderson,
    4. Mónica Hernández, and
    5. Ela Joshi

    . 2021. “Consequences of Administrative Burden for Social Safety Nets that Support the Healthy Development of Children.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 41(1): 11–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22324.

    OpenUrl
49. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela

    . 2021. “Making Medicare Complicated: How Privatizing Medicare is Increasing Administrative Burden for Beneficiaries.” Public Policy & Aging Report 31(4): 133–38.

    OpenUrl
50. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela,
    2. Thomas DeLeire,
    3. Hope Harvey, and
    4. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2013. “Shifting Administrative Burden to the State: The Case Study of Medicaid Take-Up.” Public Administration Review 73(S1): S68–S81.

    OpenUrl
51. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela, and
    2. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2018. Administrative Burden: Policymaking by Other Means. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
52. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela, and
    2. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2020. “Health Policy Brief: How Administrative Burdens Can Harm Health.” Health Affairs, October 2. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hpb20200904.405159/full/.
53. ↵
    1. Hock, Heinrich,
    2. John T. Jones,
    3. Michael Levere, and
    4. David Wittenburg

    . 2021. “Using Behavioral Outreach to Counteract Administrative Burden and Encourage Take-Up of Simplified Disability Payment Rules.” Journal of Behavioral Public Administration 4(1): 1–15.

    OpenUrl
54. ↵
    1. Holt, Stephen, and
    2. Katie Vinopal

    . 2023. “It’s About Time: Examining Inequality in the Time Cost of Waiting.” Nature: Human Behavior. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01524-w.
55. ↵
    1. Homonoff, Tatiana, and
    2. Jason Somerville

    . 2021. “Program Recertification Costs: Evidence from SNAP.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13(4): 271–98.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. Howard, Christopher

    . 1997. The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
57. ↵
    1. Hoynes, Hilary

    . 2019. “The Earned Income Tax Credit.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 686(1): 180–203.

    OpenUrl
58. ↵
    1. Hoynes, Hilary,
    2. Nicole Maestas, and
    3. Alexander Strand

    . 2022. “Legal Representation in Disability Claims.” NBER working paper no. 29871. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.
59. ↵
    1. James, Oliver,
    2. Asmus Leth Olsen,
    3. Donald P. Moynihan, and
    4. Gregg G. Van Ryzin

    . 2020. Behavioral Public Performance: How People Make Sense of Government Metrics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
60. ↵
    1. Keele, Luke,
    2. William Cubbison, and
    3. Ismail White

    . 2021. “Suppressing Black Votes: A Historical Case Study of Voting Restrictions in Louisiana.” American Political Science Review 115(2): 694–700.

    OpenUrl
61. ↵
    1. Kennan, Ariel,
    2. Sara Soka, and
    3. Katie Sullivan

    . 2022. Accessible Benefits Information: Reducing Administrative Burden and Improving Equitable Access Through Clear Communication About Safety Net Benefits. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, Beeck Center. https://beeckcenter.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Accessible-Benefits-Information.pdf.
62. ↵
    1. Kiel, Paul

    . 2019. “It’s Getting Worse: The IRS Now Audits Poor Americans at About the Same Rate as the Top 1%.” ProPublica, May 30. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.propublica.org/article/irs-now-audits-poor-americans-at-about-the-same-rate-as-the-top-1-percent.
63. ↵
    1. Klein, Ezra

    . 2022. What America Needs is a Liberalism that Builds. New York Times, May 29. Accessed December 7, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/29/opinion/biden-liberalism-infrastructure-building.html.
64. ↵
    1. Kuka, Elira, and
    2. Bryan A. Stuart

    . 2021. “Racial Inequality in Unemployment Insurance Receipt and Take-Up.” NBER working paper no. 29595. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.
65. ↵
    1. Land, Stephanie

    . 2018. “The Only Work the Farm Bill Will Create Is Paperwork.” Talk Poverty, August 20. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://talkpoverty.org/2018/04/20/work-farm-bill-will-create-paperwork/.
66. ↵
    1. Lee, Don

    . 2020. “How Budget Cuts and Restrictive Policies Hobbled the Unemployment Insurance System.” Los Angeles Times, April 30. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020–04–30/unemployment-benefits-budget-cuts.
67. ↵
    1. Linos, Elizabeth,
    2. Allen Prohofsky,
    3. Aparna Ramesh,
    4. Jesse Rothstein, and
    5. Matt Unrath

    . 2022. “Can Nudges Increase Take-Up of the EITC?: Evidence from Multiple Field Experiments.” American Economic Journal: Policy 14(4): 432–52.

    OpenUrl
68. ↵
    1. Lowrey, Annie

    . 2021. “The Time Tax: Why Is So Much American Democracy Left to Average Citizens.” The Atlantic, July 27. Accessed December 19, 2022. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2021/07/how-government-learned-waste-your-time-tax/619568/.
69. ↵
    1. Lowrey, Annie

    . 2022. “$100 Million to Cut the Time Tax.” The Atlantic, April 25. Accessed December 19, 2022. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/code-for-america-time-tax/629655/.
70. ↵
    1. Madsen, Jonas K.,
    2. Kim S. Mikkelsen, and
    3. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2022. “Burdens, Sludge, Ordeals, Red Tape, Oh My! A User’s Guide to the Study of Frictions.” Public Administration 100(2): 375–93.

    OpenUrl
71. ↵
    1. McIntyre, Adrianna,
    2. Mark Shepard, and
    3. Myles Wagner

    . 2021. “Can Automatic Retention Improve Health Insurance Market Outcomes?” AEA Papers and Proceedings 111 (May): 560–66.

    OpenUrl
72. ↵
    1. Merton, Robert K

    . 1963. “Bureaucratic Structure and Personality.” In Personality and Social Systems, edited by Neil J. Smelser and William T. Smelser. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.
73. ↵
    1. Mettler, Suzanne

    . 2011. The Submerged State: How Invisible Government Policies Undermine American Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74. ↵
    1. Michener, Jamila

    . 2016. “Race, Poverty, and the Redistribution of Voting Rights.” Poverty & Public Policy 8(2): 106–28.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
75. ↵
    1. Michener, Jamila

    . 2018. Fragmented Democracy: Medicaid, Federalism, and Unequal Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
76. ↵
    1. Michener, Jamila

    . 2019. “Medicaid and the Policy Feedback Foundations for Universal Healthcare.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 685(1): 116–34.

    OpenUrl
77. ↵
    1. Michener, Jamila

    . 2020. “Race, Politics, and the Affordable Care Act.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 45(4): 547–66.

    OpenUrl
78. ↵
    1. Michener, Jamila,
    2. Mallory SoRelle, and
    3. Chloe Thurston

    . 2022. “From the Margins to the Center: A Bottom-Up Approach to Welfare State Scholarship.” Perspectives on Politics 20 (1): 154–69.

    OpenUrl
79. ↵
    1. Mink, Gwendolyn

    . 1998. Welfare’s End. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
80. ↵
    1. Moffitt, Robert

    . 1983. “An Economic Model of Welfare Stigma.” American Economic Review 73(5): 1023–35.

    OpenUrl
81. ↵
    1. Moynihan, Donald P.,
    2. Eric Giannella,
    3. Pamela Herd, and
    4. Julie Sutherland

    . 2022. “Matching to Categories: Learning and Compliance Costs in Administrative Processes.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 32(4): 750–64.

    OpenUrl
82. ↵
    1. Moynihan, Donald P.,
    2. Pamela Herd, and
    3. Julie Gerinza

    . 2022. “Kafka’s Bureaucracy: Immigration Administrative Burdens in the Trump Era.” Perspectives on Public Management and Governance 5(1): 22–35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ppmgov/gvab025.

    OpenUrl
83. ↵
    1. Moynihan, Donald P.,
    2. Pamela Herd, and
    3. Hope Harvey

    . 2015. “Administrative Burden: Learning, Psychological, and Compliance Costs in Citizen-State Interactions.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 25(1): 43–69.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
84. ↵
    1. Mueller, Holger, and
    2. Constantine Yannelis

    . 2022. “Increasing Enrollment in Income-Driven Student Loan Repayment Plans: Evidence from the Navient Field Experiment.” Journal of Finance 77(1): 367–402.

    OpenUrl
85. ↵
    1. Mullainathan, Sendhil, and
    2. Eldar Shafir

    . 2013. Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much. New York: Times Books.
86. ↵
    1. Nichols, Albert L., and
    2. Richard J. Zeckhauser

    . 1982. “Targeting Transfers Through Restrictions on Recipients.” American Economic Review 72(2): 372–77.

    OpenUrl
87. ↵
    1. Olsen, Asmus Leth,
    2. Jonas Høgh Kyhse-Andersen, and
    3. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2022. “The Unequal Distribution of Opportunity: A National Audit Study of Bureaucratic Discrimination in Primary School Access.” American Journal of Political Science. 66(3): 587–603.

    OpenUrl
88. ↵
    1. Parolin, Zachary,
    2. Christina J. Cross, and
    3. Rourke O’Brien

    . 2023. “Administrative Burdens and Economic Insecurity Among Black, Latino, and White Families.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 56–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/2023.9.5.03.

    OpenUrl
89. ↵
    1. Pavetti, LaDonna,
    2. Michelle K. Derr, and
    3. Heather Hesketh

    . 2003. “Review of Sanction Policies and Research Studies.” Washington, D.C.: Mathematica Policy Research. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.583.5660&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
90. ↵
    1. Peeters, Rik

    . 2020. “The Political Economy of Administrative Burdens: A Theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Organizational Origins of Administrative Burdens.” Administration & Society 52(4): 566–92.

    OpenUrl
91. ↵
    1. Pickett, Justin T.,
    2. Amanda Graham, and
    3. Francis T. Cullen

    . 2021. “The American Racial Divide in Fear of the Police.” Criminology. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12300.
92. ↵
    1. Pierce, Stephanie Casey, and
    2. Stephanie Moulton

    . 2023. “The Effects of Administrative Burden on Program Equity and Performance: Evidence from a Foreclosure Prevention Program.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 146–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.07.

    OpenUrl
93. ↵
    1. Quadagno, Jill S

    . 1994. The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press.
94. ↵
    1. Raker, Ethan J., and
    2. Tyler Woods

    . 2023. “Disastrous Burdens: Hurricane Katrina, Federal Housing Assistance, and Well-Being.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(5): 122–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.5.06.

    OpenUrl
95. ↵
    1. Rauscher, Emily, and
    2. Ailish Burns

    . 2023. “States Approaches to Simply Medicaid Eligibility and Implications for Inequality of Infant Health.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(4): 32–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.4.02.

    OpenUrl
96. ↵
    1. Ray, Victor,
    2. Pamela Herd, and
    3. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2023. “Racialized Burdens: Applying Racialized Organization Theory to the Administrative State.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 33(1): 139–52.

    OpenUrl
97. ↵
    1. Rigby, Elizabeth, and
    2. Melanie J. Springer

    . 2011. “Does Electoral Reform Increase (or Decrease) Political Equality?” Political Research Quarterly 64(2): 420–34.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
98. ↵
    1. Rogers-Dillon, Robin

    . 1995. “The Dynamics of Welfare Stigma.” Qualitative Sociology 18(4): 439–56.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
99. ↵
    1. Sackett, Blair, and
    2. Annette Lareau

    . 2023. “Institutional Entanglements: How Institutional Knots and Reverberating Consequences Burden Refugee Families.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(4): 114–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.4.05.

    OpenUrl
100. ↵
     1. Schneider, Anne, and
     2. Helen Ingram

     . 1993. “Social Construction of Target Populations: Implications for Politics and Policy.” American Political Science Review 87(2): 334–47.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
101. ↵
     1. Shanks-Booth, Delphia, and
     2. Suzanne Mettler

     . 2019. “The Paradox of the Earned Income Tax Credit: Appreciating Benefits but Not Their Source.” Policy Studies Journal 4(2): 300–23.

     OpenUrl
102. ↵
     1. Skocpol, Theda

     . 1991. “Targeting Within Universalism: Politically Viable Policies to Combat Poverty in the United States.” In The Urban Underclass, edited by Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
103. ↵
     1. Social Security Administration

     . 2021. “Social Security Administration (SSA) Annual Data for Disability Reconsideration Average Processing Time.” https://www.ssa.gov/open/data/disability_reconsideration_average_processing_time.html.
104. ↵
     1. Sommers, Benjamin D.,
     2. Lucy Chen,
     3. Robert J. Blendon,
     4. E. John Orav, and
     5. Arnold M. Epstein

     . 2020. “Medicaid Work Requirements in Arkansas: Two-Year Impacts on Coverage, Employment, and Affordability of Care: Study Examines the Impact of the Arkansas Medicaid Work Requirement Before and After a Federal Judge Put the Policy on Hold.” Health Affairs 39(9): 1522–30.

     OpenUrl
105. ↵
     1. Sommers, Benjamin D.,
     2. Anna L. Goldman,
     3. Robert J. Blendon,
     4. E. John Orav, and
     5. Arnold M. Epstein

     . 2019. “Medicaid Work Requirements—Results from the First Year in Arkansas.” New England Journal of Medicine 381(11): 1073–82.

     OpenUrl
106. ↵
     1. Soss, Joe,
     2. Richard Fording, and
     3. Sanford F. Schram

     . 2011. “The Organization of Discipline: From Performance Management to Perversity and Punishment.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 20(S2): i203–32.

     OpenUrl
107. ↵
     1. Soss, Joe, and
     2. Vesla Weaver

     . 2017. “Police Are Our Government: Politics, Political Science, and the Policing of Race-Class Subjugated Communities.” Annual Review of Political Science 20(1): 565–91.

     OpenUrl
108. ↵
     1. Sunstein, Cass R

     . 2021. “The Distributional Effects of Nudges.” Nature Human Behavior. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01236-z.
109. ↵
     1. Terry, Ken, and
     2. David Muhlestein

     . 2021. “Medicare Advantage for All? Not So Fast.” Health Affairs Blog, March 11. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210304.136304/full/.
110. ↵
     1. UN Innovation Network

     . 2021. “Behavioral Science: Reducing Administrative Burden.” Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.uninnovation.network/assets/BeSci/2021_UNBeSci_ReducingAdminBurden.pdf.
111. ↵
     1. Unrath, Matt

     . 2021. “Pushed Out by Paperwork: Why Eligible Californians Leave CalFresh.” Policy Brief, January 19. Los Angeles: California Policy Lab. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.capolicylab.org/pushed-out-by-paperwork-why-eligible-californians-leave-calfresh/.
112. ↵
     1. U.S. Census Bureau (Census Bureau)

     . 2013. “TY2013 IRS-CPS ASEC Exact Match.” Washington: U.S. Census Bureau. Accessed January 21, 2022.
113. ↵
     1. U.S. Department of Labor

     . 2022. “Recipiency Rates, By State.” Unemployment Insurance Chartbook. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/Chartbook/a13.asp.
114. ↵
     1. U.S. Office of Management and Budget

     . 2021. Study to Identify Methods to Assess Equity: Report to the President. Washington: U.S. Office of Management and Budget. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/OMB-Report-on-E013985-Implementation_508-Compliant-Secure-v1.1.pdf.
115. ↵
     1. Vroman, Wayne

     . 2018. “Unemployment Insurance Benefits: Performance Since the Great Recession.” Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/96806/unemployment_insurance_benefits_performance_since_the_great_recession_2.pdf.
116. ↵
     1. Wagner, Jennifer, and
     2. Jessica Schubel

     . 2020. “States’ Experiences Confirm Harmful Effects of Medicaid Work Requirements.” Washington, D.C.: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Accessed January 21, 2022. https://www.cbpp.org/research/health/states-experiences-confirm-harmful-effects-of-medicaid-work-requirements.
117. ↵
     1. Wandner, Stephen A., and
     2. Andrew Stettner

     . 2000. “Why Are Many Jobless Workers Not Applying for Benefits?” Monthly Labor Review 123(6): 21–32.

     OpenUrl
118. ↵
     1. Yu, Lilly

     . 2023. “Third-Party Brokers: How Administrative Burdens on Nonprofit Attorneys Worsen Immigrant Legal Inequality.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(4): 133–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.4.06.

     OpenUrl
119. ↵
     1. Zeckhauser, Richard

     . 2021. “Strategic Sorting: The Role of Ordeals in Health Care.” Economics & Philosophy 37(1): 64–81.

     OpenUrl
120. ↵
     1. Zhou, Chao, and
     2. Yuting Zhang

     . 2012. “The Vast Majority of Medicare Part D Beneficiaries Still Don’t Choose the Cheapest Plans That Meet Their Medication Needs.” Health Affairs 31(10): 2259–65.

     OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text