Caregiving in a Crisis: Mothers’ Parenting Experiences and the Persistence of Class-Based Parenting During the COVID-19 Pandemic

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Alon, Titan,
   2. Matthias Doepke,
   3. Jane Olmstead-Rumsey, and
   4. Michèle Tertilt

   . 2020. “The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality.” NBER working paper no. w26947. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.nber.org/papers/w26947.
2. ↵
   1. Averett, Kate Henley

   . 2021. “A Feminist Public Sociology of the Pandemic: Interviewing About a Crisis, During a Crisis.” Gender, Work & Organization 28(S2): 321–29.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Bennett, Pamela R.,
   2. Amy C. Lutz, and
   3. Lakshmi Jayaram

   . 2012. “Beyond the Schoolyard: The Role of Parenting Logics, Financial Resources, and Social Institutions in the Social Class Gap in Structured Activity Participation.” Sociology of Education 85(2): 131–57.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
4. ↵
   1. Calarco, Jessica McCrory,
   2. Elizabeth Anderson,
   3. Emily Meanwell, and
   4. Amelia Knopf

   . 2020. “‘Let’s Not Pretend It’s Fun’: How COVID-19-Related School and Childcare Closures are Damaging Mothers’ Well-Being.” SocArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/jyvk4.
5. ↵
   1. Calarco, Jessica McCrory,
   2. Emily Meanwell,
   3. Elizabeth Anderson, and
   4. Amelia Knopf

   . 2021. “By Default: The Origins of Gendered Inequalities in Pandemic Parenting.” Socius 7:1–15.

   OpenUrl
6. ↵
   1. Carlson, Daniel L., and
   2. Richard Petts

   . 2021. “US Parents’ Domestic Labor over the Course of the COVID-19 Pandemic.” SocArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/uwdz6.
7. ↵
   1. Carlson, Daniel L.,
   2. Priya Fielding-Singh,
   3. Richard J. Petts, and
   4. Kristi Williams

   . 2022. “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: COVID Concerns and Partnered U.S. Mothers’ Employment During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Socius 8: 1–22.

   OpenUrl
8. ↵
   1. Carlson, Daniel L.,
   2. Richard J. Petts, and
   3. Joanna R. Pepin

   . 2022. “Changes in US Parents’ Domestic Labor During the Early Days of the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Sociological Inquiry 92(3): 1217–44.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Charmaz, Kathy

   . 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
10. ↵
    1. Christopher, Karen

    . 2012. “Extensive Mothering: Employed Mothers’ Constructions of the Good Mother.” Gender & Society 26(1): 73–96.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
11. ↵
    1. Chung, Heejung

    . 2022. The Flexibility Paradox. Why Flexible Working Leads to (Self-) Exploitation. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.
12. ↵
    1. Chung, Heejung,
    2. Holly Birkett,
    3. Sarah Forbes, and
    4. Hyojin Seo

    . 2021. “Covid-19, Flexible Working, and Implications for Gender Equality in the United Kingdom.” Gender & Society 35(2): 218–32.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
13. ↵
    1. Clark, Serena,
    2. Amy McGrane,
    3. Neasa Boyle,
    4. Natasha Joksimovic,
    5. Lydia Burke,
    6. Nicole Rock, and
    7. Katriona O’Sullivan

    . 2021. “‘You’re a Teacher, You’re a Mother, You’re a Worker’: Gender Inequality During COVID-19 in Ireland.” Gender, Work & Organization 28(4): 1352–62.

    OpenUrl
14. ↵
    1. Cohen, Patricia, and
    2. Tiffany Hsu

    . 2020. “Pandemic Could Scar a Generation of Working Mothers.” New York Times, June 3. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/03/business/economy/coronavirus-working-women.html.
15. ↵
    1. Collins Caitlyn, ,
    2. Liana Christin Landivar,
    3. Leah Ruppanner, and
    4. William J. Scarborough

    . 2020. “COVID-19 and the Gender Gap in Work Hours.” Gender, Work & Organization 28: 101–12.

    OpenUrl
16. ↵
    1. Collins, Caitlyn,
    2. Leah Ruppanner,
    3. Liana Christin Landivar, and
    4. William J. Scarborough

    . 2021. “the Gendered Consequences of a Weak Infrastructure of Care: School Reopening Plans and Parents’ Employment During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Gender & Society 35(2): 180–93.

    OpenUrl
17. ↵
    1. Cummins, Molly Wiant, and
    2. Grace Ellen Brannon

    . 2022. “Mothering in a Pandemic: Navigating Care Work, Intensive Motherhood, and COVID-19.” Gender Issues 39(2): 123–41.

    OpenUrl
18. ↵
    1. Damaske, Sarah

    . 2013. “Work, Family, and Accounts of Mothers’ Lives Using Discourse to Navigate Intensive Mothering Ideals.” Sociology Compass 7(6): 436–6444.

    OpenUrl
19. ↵
    1. Dang, Hai-Anh H., and
    2. Cuong Viet Nguyen

    . 2021. “Gender Inequality During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Income, Expenditure, Savings, and Job Loss.” World Development 140: 105296.

    OpenUrl
20. ↵
    1. Deterding, Nicole M., and
    2. Mary C. Waters

    . 2018. “Flexible Coding of In-Depth Interviews: A Twenty-first-century Approach” Sociological Methods & Research 50(2): 708–39.

    OpenUrl
21. ↵
    1. DeWolf, Mark, and
    2. Liana Christin Landivar

    . 2022. “Mothers’ Employment Two Years Later.” U.S. Department of Labor Blog, May 6. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://blog.dol.gov/2022/05/06/mothers-employment-two-years-later.
22. ↵
    1. Dobosz, Dagmara,
    2. Marcin Gierczyk, and
    3. Garry Hornby

    . 2023. “Parental Perspectives of Home-Schooling of Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review.” Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 23(1): 3–11.

    OpenUrl
23. ↵
    1. Duh-Leong, Carol,
    2. H. Shonna Yin,
    3. Stella S. Yi,
    4. Sabrina L. Chen,
    5. Angel Mui,
    6. Eliana M. Perrin,
    7. Qiuqu Zhao, and
    8. Rachel S. Gross

    . 2022. “Material Hardship and Stress from COVID-19 in Immigrant Chinese American Families with Infants.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 24: 48–57.

    OpenUrl
24. ↵
    1. Elliott, Sinikka, and
    2. Sarah Bowen

    . 2018. “Defending Motherhood: Morality, Responsibility, and Double Binds in Feeding Children: Defending Motherhood.” Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(2): 499–520.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Findley, Erin,
    2. Catherine A. LaBrenz,
    3. Saltanat Childress,
    4. Gladis Vásquez-Schut, and
    5. Katrina Bowman

    . 2022. “‘I’m Not Perfect’: Navigating Screen Time Among Parents of Young Children During COVID-19.” Child Care, Health and Development 48(6): 1094–102.

    OpenUrl
26. ↵
    1. Garbe, Amber,
    2. Uzeyir Ogurlu,
    3. Nikki Logan, and
    4. Perry Cook

    . 2020. “COVID-19 and Remote Learning: Experiences of Parents with Children During the Pandemic.” American Journal of Qualitative Research 4(3): 45–65.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Gemelas, Jordan, and
    2. Jenna Davison

    . 2022. “Inequities in Employment by Race, Ethnicity, and Sector During COVID-19.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 9(1): 350–55.

    OpenUrl
28. ↵
    1. Gerson, Kathleen, and
    2. Sarah Damaske

    . 2021. The Science and Art of Interviewing. New York: Oxford University Press.
29. ↵
    1. Gildner, Theresa E.,
    2. Glorieuse Uwizeye,
    3. Rebecca L. Milner,
    4. Grace C. Alston, and
    5. Zaneta M. Thayer

    . 2021. “Associations Between Postpartum Depression and Assistance with Household Tasks and Childcare During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from American Mothers.” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 21: 1–14.

    OpenUrl
30. ↵
    1. Glaser, Barney G., and
    2. Anselm L. Strauss

    . 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine Publishing.
31. ↵
    1. Glavin, Paul, and
    2. Scott Schieman

    . 2012. “Work–Family Role Blurring and Work–Family Conflict: the Moderating Influence of Job Resources and Job Demands.” Work and Occupations 39(1): 71–98.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
32. ↵
    1. Goldin, Claudia

    . 2022. “Understanding the Economic Impact of COVID-19 on Women.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Spring: 65–110. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. Accessed March 4, 2024. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/16265-BPEA-Sp22_Goldin_WEB-Appendix.pdf.
33. ↵
    1. Goldman, Noreen,
    2. Anne R. Pebley,
    3. Keunbok Lee,
    4. Theresa Andrasfay, and
    5. Boriana Pratt

    . 2021. “Racial and Ethnic Differentials in COVID-19-Related Job Exposures by Occupational Standing in the US.” PLoS One 16(9). Published online: September 1, 2021. Accessed March 4, 2024. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0256085.
34. ↵
    1. Greenway, Charlotte W., and
    2. Karen Eaton-Thomas

    . 2020. “Parent Experiences of Home-Schooling Children with Special Educational Needs or Disabilities During the Coronavirus Pandemic.” British Journal of Special Education 47(4): 510–35.

    OpenUrl
35. ↵
    1. Harding, Jessica F.,
    2. Pamela A. Morris, and
    3. Diane Hughes

    . 2015. “The Relationship Between Maternal Education and Children’s Academic Outcomes: A Theoretical Framework.” Journal of Marriage and Family 77(1): 60–76.

    OpenUrl
36. ↵
    1. Haskett, Mary E.,
    2. Jodi K. Hall,
    3. Heather P. Finster,
    4. Caitlyn Owens, and
    5. Alexandra R. Buccelli

    . 2022. “‘It Brought My Family More Together’: Mixed-Methods Study of Low-Income US Mothers During the Pandemic.” Family Relations (2022): 849–64.
37. ↵
    1. Hays, Sharon

    . 1998. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
38. ↵
    1. Heggeness, Misty L

    . 2020. “Estimating the Immediate Impact of the COVID-19 Shock on Parental Attachment to the Labor Market and the Double Bind of Mothers.” Review of Economics of the Household 18(4): 1053–78.

    OpenUrl
39. ↵
    1. Hertz, Rosanna,
    2. Jane Mattes, and
    3. Alexandria Shook

    . 2021. “When Paid Work Invades the Family: Single Mothers in the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Journal of Family Issues 42(9): 2019–45.

    OpenUrl
40. ↵
    1. Ishizuka, Patrick

    . 2019. “Social Class, Gender, and Contemporary Parenting Standards in the United States: Evidence from a National Survey Experiment.” Social Forces 98(1): 31–58.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Kalil, Ariel,
    2. Susan Mayer, and
    3. Rohen Shah

    . 2020. “Impact of the COVID-19 Crisis on Family Dynamics in Economically Vulnerable Households.” Working Paper 2020-143. Chicago: University of Chicago, Becker Friedman Institute for Economics. March 4, 2024. https://bfi.uchicago.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/BFI_WP_2020143.pdf.
42. ↵
    1. Kocchar, Rakesh

    . 2020. “U.S. Unemployment Rose Higher in Three Months of COVID-19 Than It Did in Two Years of the Great Recession.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed March 4, 2024. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/11/unemployment-rose-higher-in-three-months-of-covid-19-than-it-did-in-two-years-of-the-great-recession.
43. ↵
    1. Krentz, Matt,
    2. Emily Kos,
    3. Anna Green, and
    4. Jennifer Garci-Alonso

    . 2020. “Easing the COVID-19 Burden on Working Parents.” Boston Consulting Group. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.bcg.com/publications/2020/helping-working-parents-ease-the-burden-of-covid-19.
44. ↵
    1. Landivar, Liana Christin,
    2. Leah Ruppanner,
    3. William J. Scarborough, and
    4. Caitlyn Collins

    . 2020. “Early Signs Indicate That COVID-19 Is Exacerbating Gender Inequality in the Labor Force.” Socius 6: 2378023120947997.

    OpenUrl
45. ↵
    1. Landivar, Liana Christin, and
    2. Mark deWolf

    . 2022. “Mothers’ Employment Two Years Later: An Assessment of Employment Loss and Recovery During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Washington: U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/WB/media/Mothers-employment-2%20-years-later-may2022.pdf.
46. ↵
    1. Lankes, Jane

    . 2022. “Negotiating “Impossible” Ideals: Latent Classes of Intensive Mothering in the United States.” Gender & Society 36(5): 677–703.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Lareau, Annette

    . 2003. Unequal Childhoods Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
48. ↵
    1. Lewis, Helen

    . 2020. “The Coronavirus Is a Disaster for Feminism.” The Atlantic, March 19. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/03/feminism-womens-rights-coronavirus-covid19/608302.
49. ↵
    1. Lim, Katherine, and
    2. Mike Zabek

    . 2021. “Women’s Labor Force Exits During COVID19: Differences by Motherhood, Race, and Ethnicity.” Finance and Economics Discussion Series working paper no. 2021-067. Washington, D.C.: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/FEDS.2021.067.
50. ↵
    1. MacEachen, Ellen,
    2. Jessica Polzer, and
    3. Judy Clarke

    . 2008. “‘You Are Free to Set Your Own Hours’: Governing Worker Productivity and Health Through Flexibility and Resilience.” Social Science & Medicine 66(5): 1019–33.

    OpenUrl
51. ↵
    1. Martucci, Sara

    . 2021. “He’s Working from Home and I’m at Home Trying to Work: Experiences of Childcare and the Work–Family Balance Among Mothers During COVID-19.” Journal of Family Issues 44(2): 291–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X211048476.

    OpenUrl
52. ↵
    1. McLanahan, Sara

    . 2004. “Diverging Destinies: How Children Are Faring Under the Second Demographic Transition.” Demography 41(4): 607–27.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
53. ↵
    1. McLanahan, Sara, and
    2. Wade Jacobsen

    . 2014. “Diverging Destinies Revisited.” In Families in an Era of Increasing Inequality: Diverging Destinies, edited by Paul R. Amato, Alan Booth, Susan M. McHale, and Jennifer Van Hook, 3–23. Cham: Springer International.
54. ↵
    1. Miller, Emily K.,
    2. Kari A. O’Donnell,
    3. Anna E. Bender,
    4. Kylie E. Evans, and
    5. Megan R. Holmes

    . 2022. “Mothers’ Experiences of Emotional Connection During COVID-19 in the United States: A Thematic Analysis.” Families in Society 145: 106775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106775.

    OpenUrl
55. ↵
    1. Moen, Phyllis,
    2. Joseph H. Pedtke, and
    3. Sarah Flood

    . 2020. “Disparate Disruptions: Intersectional COVID-19 Employment Effects by Age, Gender, Education, and Race/Ethnicity.” Work, Aging and Retirement 6(4): 207–28.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. Noonan, Mary C., and
    2. Jennifer L. Glass

    . 2012. “The Hard Truth About Telecommuting.” Monthly Labor Review 135: 38–45.

    OpenUrl
57. ↵
    1. Parolin, Zachary,
    2. Megan Curran,
    3. Jordan Matsudaira,
    4. Jane Waldfogel, and
    5. Christopher Wimer

    . 2022. “Estimating Monthly Poverty Rates in the United States.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 41(4): 1177–203. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22403.

    OpenUrl
58. ↵
    1. Petts, Richard J.,
    2. Daniel L. Carlson, and
    3. Joanna R. Pepin

    . 2021. “A Gendered Pandemic: Childcare, Homeschooling, and Parents’ Employment During COVID-19.” Gender, Work & Organization 28: 515–34.

    OpenUrl
59. ↵
    1. Prickett, Kate C., and
    2. Jennifer March Augustine

    . 2016. “Maternal Education and Investments in Children’s Health.” Journal of Marriage and Family 78(1): 7–25.

    OpenUrl
60. ↵
    1. Qian, Yue, and
    2. Sylvia Fuller

    . 2020. “COVID-19 and the Gender Employment Gap Among Parents of Young Children.” Canadian Public Policy 46(S2): S89–S101.

    OpenUrl
61. ↵
    1. Racine, Nicole,
    2. Rachel Eirich,
    3. Jessica Cooke,
    4. Jenney Zhu,
    5. Paolo Pador,
    6. Nicole Dunnewold, and
    7. Sheri Madigan

    . 2022. “When the Bough Breaks: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mental Health Symptoms in Mothers of Young Children During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Infant Mental Health Journal 43(1): 36–54.

    OpenUrl
62. ↵
    1. Radey, Melissa,
    2. Lisa Langenderfer-Magruder, and
    3. Joedrecka Brown Speights

    . 2021. “‘I Don’t Have Much of a Choice’: Low-Income Single Mothers’ COVID-19 School and Care Decisions.” Family Relations 70(5): 1312–26.

    OpenUrl
63. ↵
    1. Radey, Melissa,
    2. Sarah Lowe,
    3. Lisa Langenderfer-Magruder, and
    4. Kristine Posada

    . 2022. “‘Showing Everybody’s True Colors’: Informal Networks of Low-Income Single Mothers and Their Young Children During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Children and Youth Services Review 137: 1–9.

    OpenUrl
64. ↵
    1. Rakap, Salih,
    2. Meryem Vural Batık,
    3. Mustafa Karnas,
    4. Sinan Kalkan,
    5. Uygar Bayrakdar, and
    6. Halil Ibrahim Sari

    . 2023. “Caught Off Guard: Parenting Children with Disabilities During COVID-19 Pandemic.” International Journal of Progressive Education 19(2): 37–53.

    OpenUrl
65. ↵
    1. Randles, Jennifer

    . 2021. “‘Willing to Do Anything for My Kids’: Inventive Mothering, Diapers, and the Inequalities of Carework.” American Sociological Review 86(1): 35–59.

    OpenUrl
66. ↵
    1. Rinaldo, Rachel, and
    2. Ian Michael Whalen

    . 2023. “Amplifying Inequalities: Gendered Perceptions of Work Flexibility and the Division of Household Labor During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Gender, Work & Organization 30(6): 1922–40.

    OpenUrl
67. ↵
    1. Ruppanner, Leah,
    2. Xiao Tan,
    3. Andrea Carson, and
    4. Shaun Ratcliff

    . 2021. “Emotional and Financial Health During COVID-19: The Role of Housework, Employment and Childcare in Australia and the United States.” Gender, Work & Organization 28(5): 1937–55.

    OpenUrl
68. ↵
    1. San Jose, Ariel E.,
    2. Maria Gregoria R. Concepcion, and
    3. Buena R. San Jose

    . 2021. “Mothers as Teachers: The New Role of Mothers in the New Normal.” Journal of Learning for Development 9(2): 351–62.

    OpenUrl
69. ↵
    1. Schneider, Daniel, and
    2. Kristen Harknett

    . 2021. “Hard Times: Routine Schedule Unpredictability and Material Hardship Among Service Sector Workers.” Social Forces 99(4): 1682–709.

    OpenUrl
70. ↵
    1. Smith, Julia

    . 2022. “From “Nobody’s Clapping for Us” to “Bad Moms”: COVID-19 and the Circle of Childcare in Canada.” Gender, Work & Organization 29(1): 353–67.

    OpenUrl
71. ↵
    1. Thomas, Rachel,
    2. Marianne Cooper,
    3. Kate McShane Urban,
    4. Gina Cardazone,
    5. Ali Bohrer,
    6. Sonia Mahajan,
    7. Lareina Yee,
    8. Alexis Krivkovich,
    9. Jess Huang,
    10. Ishanaa Rambachan,
    11. Tiffany Burns, and
    12. Tijana Trkulja

    . 2021. “Women in the Workplace 2021.” LeanIn.Org and McKinsey and Company. Accessed March 4, 2024. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured%20insights/diversity%20and%20inclusion/women%20in%20the%20workplace%202021/women-in-the-workplace-2021.pdf.
72. ↵
    1. Timmermans, Stefan, and
    2. Iddo Tavory

    . 2012. “Theory Construction in Qualitative Research: from Grounded Theory to Abductive Analysis.” Sociological Theory 30(3): 167–86.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
73. ↵
    1. Towers, Ian,
    2. Linda Duxbury,
    3. Christopher Higgins, and
    4. John Thomas

    . 2006. “Time Thieves and Space Invaders: Technology, Work and the Organization.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 19(5): 593–618.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
74. ↵
    1. Tüzemen, Didem

    . 2021. “Women Without a College Degree, Especially Minority Mothers, Face a Steeper Road to Recovery.” Economic Review 106(3): 5–23.

    OpenUrl
75. ↵
    1. U.S. Department of Labor

    . 2022. “Bearing the Cost: How Overrepresentation in Undervalued Roles Hurt Women During the Pandemic.” Fact Sheet. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/WB/media/BearingTheCostReportFactSheet.pdf.
76. ↵
    1. Weber, Lauren, and
    2. Vanessa Fuhrmans

    . 2020. “How the Coronavirus Crisis Threatens to Set Back Women’s Careers.” Wall Street Journal, September 30. Accessed November 8, 2022. https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-the-coronavirus-crisis-threatens-to-set-back-womens-careers-11601438460.
77. ↵
    1. Woodbridge, Lindsay M.,
    2. Byeolbee Um, and
    3. David K. Duys

    . 2021. “Women’s Experiences Navigating Paid Work and Caregiving During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” The Career Development Quarterly 69(4): 284–98.

    OpenUrl
78. ↵
    1. Zamarro, Gema, and
    2. María J. Prados

    . 2021. “Gender Differences in Couples’ Division of Childcare, Work and Mental Health During COVID-19.” Review of Economics of the Household 19(1): 11–40.

    OpenUrl
79. ↵
    1. Zang, Emma,
    2. Yining Milly Yang, and
    3. Jessica McCrory Calarco

    . 2022. “Patterns in Receiving Informal Help with Childcare Among US Parents During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” SSRN 4108245. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4108245.
80. ↵
    1. Zanhour, Mona, and
    2. Dana McDaniel Sumpter

    . 2022. “The Entrenchment of the Ideal Worker Norm During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Working Mothers in the United States.” Gender, Work & Organization. First published online: July 6, 2022. https://doi.org/101111/gwao.12885.