Black Reparations in the United States, 2024: An Introduction

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Aladangady, Aditya,
   2. Andrew C. Chang, and
   3. Jacob Krimmel

   . 2023. “Greater Wealth, Greater Uncertainty: Changes in Racial Inequality in the Survey of Consumer Finances.” FEDS Notes, October 18. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/greater-wealth-greater-uncertainty-changes-in-racial-inequality-in-the-survey-of-consumer-finances-20231018.html.
2. ↵
   1. Al-Awsat, Asharq

   . 2022. “France Approves Reparation Bill for Algeria’s Harkis.” Accessed December 13, 2023. http://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3478276/france-approves-reparation-bill-algeria’s-harkis.
3. ↵
   1. Allen, Robert L

   . 1998. “Past Due: The African American Quest for Reparations.” Black Scholar 28(2): 2–17.

   OpenUrl
4. ↵
   1. America, Richard F

   . 1990. The Wealth of Races. New York: Greenwood Press.
5. ↵
   1. Araujo, Ana Lucia

   . 2019. “The History of Black Women Championing Demands for Reparations.” Truthout, June 1. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://truthout.org/articles/the-history-of-black-women-championing-demands-for-reparations.
6. ↵
   1. Asiegbu, Grace

   . 2020. “Blackness in Puerto Rico.” Medill Reports, April 3. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/blackness-in-puerto-rico.
7. ↵
   1. Associated Press

   . 2004. “Tortured Chileans Gain Compensation.” NBC News, November 29. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6612949.
8. ↵
   1. Aurora de Chile

   . n.d. “Manuel de Salas.” Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.auroradechile.cl/newtenberg/681/article-3031.html.
9. ↵
   1. BBC News

   . 2012. “Philippines Signs Humans Rights Law on Forced Disappearances.” December 22. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20823526.
10. ↵
    1. BBC News

    . 2013. “Philippines Law Gives Compensation to Marcos Victims.” February 25. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21571051.
11. ↵
    1. Beauvois, Frédérique

    . 2017. Between Blood & Gold. The Debates over Compensation for Slavery in the Americas. New York: Berghahn Books.
12. ↵
    1. Bennett, Julie, and
    2. YiLi Chien

    . 2022. “The Large Gap in Stock Market Participation Between Black and White Households.” Economic Synopses no. 7. St. Louis: Federal Reserve Bank. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2022/03/28/the-large-gap-in-stock-market-participation-between-black-and-white-households.
13. ↵
    1. Benson, T. B

    . 1915. “Segregation Ordinances.” Virginia Law Review New Series 1(5): 330–56. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1104063.

    OpenUrl
14. ↵
    1. Berlin, Ira

    . 2010. “The Changing Definition of African-American.” Smithsonian Magazine, February. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-changing-definition-of-african-american-4905887/.
15. ↵
    1. Berry, Daina Ramey

    . 2017. The Price for Their Pound of Flesh: The Value of the Enslaved, from Womb to Grave, in the Building of a Nation. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Books.
16. ↵
    1. Berry, Daina Ramey, and
    2. Kali Nicole Gross

    . 2020. A Black Women’s History of the United States. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Books.
17. ↵
    1. Berry, Mary Frances

    . 2005. My Face Is Black Is True: Calle House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
18. ↵
    1. Bilmes, Linda, and
    2. Cornell William Brooks

    . 2024. “Normalizing Reparations: U.S. Precedent, Norms, and Models for Compensating Harms and Implications for Reparations to Black Americans.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 30–68. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.02.

    OpenUrl
19. ↵
    1. Blain, Keisha

    . 2019. “Audley Moore, Black Women’s Activism, and Nationalist Politics.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.aaihs.org/audley-moore-black-womens-activism-and-nationalist-politics.
20. ↵
    1. Booker Perry, Miranda

    . 2010. “No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople” Prologue Magazine 42(2)(Summer). Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/summer/slave-pension.html.
21. ↵
    1. Boxer, Andrew

    . 2009. “Native Americans and the Federal Government.” History Today 64 (September). Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/native-americans-and-federal-government.
22. ↵
    1. Brooks, Roy

    . 2004. Atonement and Forgiveness. A New Model for Black Reparations. Berkeley: University of California Press.
23. ↵
    1. Brunnstrom, David, and
    2. Michael Martina

    . 2023. “Activists Urge U.S. Apology, Fair Compensation, for U.S. Pacific Nuclear Testing.” Reuters, January 10. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/activists-urge-us-apology-fair-compensation-us-pacific-nuclear-testing-2023-01-10.
24. ↵
    1. California Department of Justice

    . 2021. “Reparations Task Force, Witness Testimony, Roy Brooks, J.D.” [YouTube video]. September 23. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sw9i1kBR57U.
25. ↵
    1. California Reparations Task Force (CRTF)

    . 2023. “Final Recommendations of Task Force Regarding Calculations of Losses to African American Descendants of a Chattel Enslaved Person, or Descendants of a Free Black Person Living in the United States Prior to the End of the 19th Century, and Forms of Compensation and Restitution.” Part 4, Chapter 17 of draft report. May 6. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://oag.ca.gov/system/files/media/ab3121-agenda10-ch17-draft-05062023.pdf.
26. ↵
    1. Canadian Press

    . 2023. “‘Historic’ $2.9B Class-Action Indigenous Court Settlement Approved.” CBC News, March 9. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.6774186.
27. ↵
    1. CNN

    . 2012. “U.S. Finalizes $3.4 Billion Settlement with American Indians.” November 27. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.cnn.com/2012/11/26/politics/american-indian-settlment/index.html.
28. ↵
    1. Coates, Ta-Nehisi

    . 2014. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic, June. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631.
29. ↵
    1. Colombia Aprende

    . 2007. “Ley de Libertad de Vientres de 1821.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20070927023207/http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/article-82844.html.
30. ↵
    1. Consumer Product Safety Commission

    . 2023. “Notice of Availability: Proposed Draft Guidance for Estimating Value Per Statistical Life.” Federal Register 88: 17826–28. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/03/24/2023-06081/notice-of-availability-proposed-draft-guidance-for-estimating-value-per-statistical-life.

    OpenUrl
31. ↵
    1. Cook, Alex,
    2. Dan Shepard, and
    3. Xiomara Martinez-White

    . 2022. “Business Owner Demographics: Gender, Race, and More.” Lending Tree, November 22. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.lendingtree.com/business/business-owner-demographics.
32. ↵
    1. Coria, Juan Carlos

    . 1997. “Pasado y presente de los Negros en Buenos Aires.” Educar - Argentina, October. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20061127105341/http://www.educar-argentina.com.ar/CORIA/coria9.htm.
33. ↵
    1. Cozzi, Lauren

    . 2023. “More Americans Own Their Homes, but Black-White Homeownership Rate Gap Is Biggest in a Decade, NAR Report Finds.” Chicago: National Association of Realtors, March 2. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.nar.realtor/newsroom/more-americans-own-their-homes-but-black-white-homeownership-rate-gap-is-biggest-in-a-decade-nar.
34. ↵
    1. Craemer, Thomas

    . 2009a. “Framing Reparations.” Policy Studies Journal 37(2): 275–98.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
35. ↵
    1. Craemer, Thomas

    . 2009b. “Psychological ‘Self–Other Overlap’ and Support for Slavery Reparations.” Social Science Research 38(3): 668–80.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Craemer, Thomas

    . 2015. “Estimating Slavery Reparations: Present Value Comparisons of Historical Multigenerational Reparations Policies” Social Science Quarterly 96(2)(June): 639–55.

    OpenUrl
37. ↵
    1. Craemer, Thomas,
    2. Trevor Smith,
    3. Brianna Harrison,
    4. Trevon D. Logan,
    5. Wesley Bellamy, and
    6. William A. Darity Jr.

    . 2023. “Wealth Implications of Slavery and Racial Discrimination for African American Descendants of the Enslaved.” In The Black Reparations Project: A Handbook for Racial Justice, edited by William Darity Jr.., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Lucas Hubbard, 21–62. Berkeley: University of California Press.
38. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.

    . 2008. “Forty Acres and a Mule in the 21st Century.” Social Science Quarterly 89(3): 656–64.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
39. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.

    . 2021a. “John Wayne Niles.” In Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019, edited by Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain, 244–48. New York: One World Press.
40. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.

    . 2021b. “The True Cost of Closing the Racial Wealth Gap.” New York Times, May 2.
41. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. Dania Frank

    . 2003. “The Economics of Reparations.” American Economic Association Papers and Proceedings 93(2): 326–29.

    OpenUrl
42. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr..,
    2. Darrick Hamilton,
    3. Mark Paul,
    4. Alan Aja,
    5. Anne Price,
    6. Antonio Moore, and
    7. Caterina Chiopris

    . 2018. “What We Get Wrong About Closing the Racial Wealth Gap.” Durham, NC: Insight Center for Community Economic Development and the Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity at Duke University. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://socialequity.duke.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/what-we-get-wrong.pdf.
43. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen

    . 2020. From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
44. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen

    . 2021. “Local ‘Reparations’ Plans Make Promises They Can’t Keep.” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 25, 2021. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355574566_Local_'reparations'_plans_make_promises_they_can't_keep_Opinion.
45. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen

    . 2023. “William Darity Jr. and Kirsten Mullen on Why It’s Time to Pay Reparations to Black Americans.” Madison: Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.irp.wisc.edu/resource/william-darity-jr-and-kirsten-mullen-on-why-its-time-to-pay-reparations-to-black-americans.
46. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr..,
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen, and
    3. Marvin Slaughter

    . 2022. “The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 36(2)(Spring): 99–122.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Davies, Elizabeth Jordie,
    2. Jenn M. Jackson, and
    3. David J. Knight

    . 2024. “Limited Scopes of Repair: Black Reparations Strategies and the Constraints of Local Redress Policy.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 162–83. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.08.

    OpenUrl
48. ↵
    1. Dawson, Michael C., and
    2. Rovana Popoff

    . 2004. “Reparations: Justice and Greed in Black and White.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 1(1): 47–91.

    OpenUrl
49. ↵
    1. Desapaericidos

    . n.d. “For Memory, Truth, and Justice: The Philippines.” Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.desaparecidos.org/phil/eng.html.
50. ↵
    1. Dvir-Djerassi, Asher

    . 2024. “Closing the Racial Wealth Gap: A Counterfactual Historical Simulation of Universal Inheritance.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 70–91. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.04.

    OpenUrl
51. ↵
    1. Edwards, Kathryn Anne,
    2. Lisa Berdie, and
    3. Jonathan W. Welburn

    . 2024. “What Makes a Reparations Successful? A Discussion to Inform Design of Reparations to Black Americans.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 69–85. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.03.

    OpenUrl
52. ↵
    1. Francois, Chevalier

    . 1999. América Latina. De la Independencia a nuestros días. Misione: Primera Edición, México. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20070128015653/http://www.asa.edu.py/tch_work/estudiossociales/cronologiaamericalatina.htm.
53. ↵
    1. Free Womb Project

    . n.d.a “Bolivia, 1831.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://thefreewombproject.com/bolivia.
54. ↵
    1. Free Womb Project

    . n.d.b. “Gran Colombia (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panamá), 1821.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://thefreewombproject.com/colombia/.
55. ↵
    1. Friedman, Morgan S

    . 2019. “The Inflation Calculator.” West Egg. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://westegg.com/inflation.
56. ↵
    1. Fundacion Polar

    . 2007. Historia de Venezuela Para Nosotros. Ley de Abolición de la Esclavitud. February 23. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20070223073325/http://www.fpolar.org.ve/nosotros/educacional/economia/abolescl.html.
57. ↵
    1. Grieshaber, Kristen

    . 2022. “Germany Marks 70 Years of Compensating Holocaust Survivors.” AP News, September 15. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.apnews.com.
58. ↵
    1. Hersher, Rebecca

    . 2016. “U.S. Government to Pay $492 Million to 17 American Indian Tribes.” National Public Radio, September 27. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/09/27/495627997/u-s-government-to-pay-492-million-to-17-american-indian-tribes.
59. ↵
    1. Hudgins, Kamri,
    2. Erykah Benson,
    3. Sydney Carr,
    4. Jasmine Simington,
    5. Zoe Walker,
    6. Jessica Cruz,
    7. Vincent Hutchings,
    8. Earl Lewis,
    9. Mara Cecilia Ostfeld, and
    10. Alford Young Jr.

    . 2024. “Crafting Democratic Futures: Understanding Political Conditions and Racialized Attitudes Toward Black Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 49–67. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.03.

    OpenUrl
60. ↵
    1. Jaffe, Logan

    . 2020. “The Nation’s First Reparations Package to Survivors of Police Torture Included a Public Memorial. Survivors Are Still Waiting.” ProPublica, July 3. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.propublica.org/article/the-nations-first-reparations-package-to-survivors-of-police-torture-included-a-public-memorial-survivors-are-still-waiting.
61. ↵
    1. Jones, Thai

    . 2021. “Archival Documents Bring Light to Historical African American Legal Triumphs.” Columbia News, September 16. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://news.columbia.edu/news/rare-book-and-manuscript-library-document-brings-light-to-historical-african-american-legal-victories.
62. ↵
    1. Kahrl, Andrew

    . 2016. This Land Was Ours: How Black Beaches Became White Wealth in the Coastal South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
63. ↵
    1. Kahrl, Andrew

    . 2024. The Black Tax: 150 Years of Theft, Exploitation, and Dispossession in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
64. ↵
    1. Katznelson, Ira

    . 2005. When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. New York: W. W. Norton.
65. ↵
    1. Kraus, Michael W., and
    2. A. Chiyei Vinluan

    . 2023. “Reminders of Japanese American Redress Increase Asian American Support for Reparations.” Communications Psychology 1(1). Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375481272_Reminders_of_Japanese_redress_increase_Asian_American_support_for_Black_reparations/references.
66. ↵
    1. Luckerson, Victor

    . 2020. “What a Florida Reparations Case Can Teach Us About Justice in America.” Time, September 10. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://time.com/5887247/reparations-america-rosewood-massacre.
67. ↵
    1. Marketti, James

    . 1990. “Estimated Present Value of Income Diverted During Slavery.” In Wealth of Races, edited by Richard F. America, 107–23. New York: Greenwood Press.
68. ↵
    1. McDaniel, W. Caleb

    . 2019. Sweet Taste of Liberty: A True Story of Slavery and Restitution in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
69. ↵
    1. Medicins San Frontieres

    . 2023. “Reparation (Compensation).” The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://guide-humanitarian-law.org/content/article/3/reparation-compensation.
70. ↵
    1. Merritt, Keri Leigh

    . 2016. “Land and the Roots of African-American Poverty.” Aeon, March 11. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://aeon.co/ideas/land-and-the-roots-of-african-american-poverty.
71. ↵
    1. Miriri, Duncan, and
    2. Aaron Ross

    . 2023. “King Charles’ Regrets for Colonial Abuses in Kenya not Enough for Some Victims,” Reuters, November 1. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/king-charles-regrets-colonial-abuses-kenya-not-enough-some-victims-2023-11-01.
72. ↵
    1. Mittal, Anuradha, and
    2. Joan Powell

    . 2000. “The Last Plantation.” Food First 6(1): 1–8.

    OpenUrl
73. ↵
    1. Mullen, A. Kirsten

    . 2022a. “America Needs a Better Reparations Plan.” Bloomberg, May 20. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-05-20/america-needs-a-better-reparations-plan-a-kirsten-mullen#xj4y7vzkg.
74. ↵
    1. Mullen, A. Kirsten

    . 2022b. “The Queen Mother.” Vanity Fair, November. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/2022/11/the-queen-mother.
75. ↵
    1. National African American Reparations Commission (NAARC)

    . 2015. “Preliminary Reparations Program.” NAARC, September 18. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://ibw21.org/docs/naarc/NAARC_Preliminary_Reparations_Program.pdf.
76. ↵
    1. National African American Reparations Commission (NAARC)

    . 2021. “National Town Hall Meeting: Building a Local Reparations Movement.” YouTube video, 20:29:12. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lS-O5yiGhjA.
77. ↵
    1. National Archives

    . 2017. “Japanese Claims Act of July 2, 1948 Case Files (Record Group 60).” Civil Liberties Act of 1988. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.archives.gov/research/japanese-americans/redress.
78. ↵
    1. National Congress of American Indians (NCAI

    ). 2019. “Calling on Congress to Introduce and Support Reparation Legislation for the Treatment of American Indians and Alaska Natives.” Resolutions Committee Recommendation Resolution no. REN-19–020. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.ncai.org/attachments/Resolution_ueMXHKsnEbfLzaUzceyrsHJgTmxbkgQplyvkWHQBVciBejXlGMP_REN-19-020.pdf.
79. ↵
    1. Neal, Larry

    . 1990. “A Calculation and Comparison of the Current Benefits of Slavery and an Analysis of Who Benefits.” In Wealth of Races, edited by Richard F. America, 91–106. New York: Greenwood Press.
80. ↵
    1. Newton, Monique, and
    2. Matthew D. Nelsen

    . 2024. “The Politics of Expedience: Evanston, Illinois, and the Fight for Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 114–39. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.06.

    OpenUrl
81. ↵
    1. Officer, Lawrence H., and
    2. Samuel H. Williamson

    . 2019. “Annual Wages in the United States Unskilled Labor and Manufacturing Workers, 1774–Present.” MeasuringWorth. Accessed December 13, 2023. www.measuringworth.com/uswage.
82. 1. Paine, Thomas

    . 1775. “African Slavery in America.” History Is a Weapon. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/paineafricanslaveryinamerica.html.
83. ↵
    1. Patiño, Victor Manuel

    . 2007. “Economic Reforms de Mediated del Siglo XIX.” In History of Material Culture in the Equinox Americas, chap. 26. Bogotá: Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango del Banco de la República. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20070626124522/http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/historia/equinoccial_6_comercio/capitu26.htm.
84. ↵
    1. PBS Learning Media for Teachers

    . 2023. “Segregation Ordinances: Birmingham, AL.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://pbsnc.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/iml04.soc.ush.civil.bhamseg/segregation-ordinances-birmingham-al/.
85. ↵
    1. Perrone, Giuliana

    . 2024. “Rehearsals for Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 132–50. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.06.

    OpenUrl
86. ↵
    1. Pfau, Ann,
    2. Kathleen Lawlor,
    3. David Hochfelder, and
    4. Stacy Kinlock Sewell

    . 2024. “Using Urban Renewal Records to Advance Reparative Justice.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 113–31. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.05.

    OpenUrl
87. ↵
    1. Presidency of Uruguay

    . 2006. “Instrumentos Nacionales de Derechos Humanos.” September 23. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20060923110540/http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/_Web/ddhh/ddhhuru.htm.
88. ↵
    1. Republic of South Africa

    . 1995. Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act 34 of 1995. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.gov.za/documents/promotion-national-unity-and-reconciliation-act.
89. ↵
    1. Ransom, Roger L., and
    2. Richard Sutch

    . 1990. “Who Pays for Slavery?” In Wealth of Races, edited by Richard F. America, 31–54. New York: Greenwood Press.
90. ↵
    1. Reneau, Olivia J

    . 2024. “Justice Delayed: An Analysis of Local Proposals for Black Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 140–61. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.07.

    OpenUrl
91. ↵
    1. Reparations, Responsibility & Victimhood in Transitional Societies (RRVTS)

    . n.d. “Colombia.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://reparations.qub.ac.uk/countries/colombia/.
92. ↵
    1. Rhodes, Jesse H.,
    2. Tatishe M. Nteta,
    3. Lilliauna Hopkins, and
    4. Gregory Wall

    . 2024. “Why Reparations? Race and Public Opinion Toward Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 30–48. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.02.

    OpenUrl
93. ↵
    1. The Riverside Church

    . n.d. “The Black Manifesto at The Riverside Church.” New York City. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.trcnyc.org/blackmanifesto.
94. ↵
    1. Rothstein, Richard

    . 2017. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: Liveright Publishing.
95. ↵
    1. Royall House and Slave Quarters

    . n.d. “Belinda Sutton and Her Petitions.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://royallhouse.org/slavery/belinda-sutton-and-her-petitions.
96. ↵
    1. Satter, Beryl

    . 2010. Family Properties: How the Struggle over Race and Real Estate Transformed Chicago and Urban America. London: Picador.
97. ↵
    1. Shanks, Trina R.,
    2. Jin Huang,
    3. William Elliott III.,
    4. Haotian Zheng,
    5. Margaret M. Clancy, and
    6. Michael Sherraden

    . 2024. “A Policy Platform to Deliver Black Reparations: Building on Evidence from Child Development Accounts.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 92–111. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.05.

    OpenUrl
98. ↵
    1. Spector, Robert Melvin

    . 1968. “The Quock Walker Cases (1781–1783): Slavery, Its Abolition, and Black Citizenship in Early Massachusetts.” Journal of Negro History 53(1): 12–32. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-american-history_1968_53_index.

    OpenUrl
99. ↵
    1. Statista

    . 2023. “Poverty Rate in the United States in 2022, by Race and Ethnicity.” Statista Research Department. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/200476/us-poverty-rate-by-ethnic-group.
100. ↵
     1. Swinton, David H

     . 1990. “Racial Inequality and Reparations.” In Wealth of Races, edited by Richard F. America, 153–62. New York: Greenwood Press.
101. ↵
     1. Tāíwò, Olúfẹ́mi

     . 2022. Reconsidering Reparations New York: Oxford University Press.
102. ↵
     1. Tamir, Christine

     . 2022. “Key Findings About Black Immigrants in the U.S.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/01/27/key-findings-about-black-immigrants-in-the-u-s.
103. ↵
     1. Taylor, Keenga-Yamhatta

     . 2019. Race for Profit: How Banks and the Real Estate Industry Undermined Black Homeownership. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
104. ↵
     1. Taylor, Luke

     . 2023. “Colombia to Pay Reparations for Role in Extermination of Leftwing Party.” Guardian, February 1. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/01/colombia-reparations-systemic-violence-leftwing-patriotic-union.
105. ↵
     1. Tico Times

     . 2004. “Country Celebrates Abolition.” August 20. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://ticotimes.net/2004/08/20/country-celebrates-abolition.
106. ↵
     1. United States Institute of Peace (USIP)

     . 1990. Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.usip.org/publications/1990/05/truth-commission-chile-90.
107. ↵
     1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

     . n.d. “CPI Inflation Calculator.” [Inflation measured from $50,000 on January 2004, to $69,647 on January 2020]. https://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.
108. ↵
     1. U.S. Census

     . 1975. Bicentennial Edition: Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970. September 1975. https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/1975/compendia/hist_stats_colonial-1970/hist_stats_colonial-1970p1-start.pdf.
109. ↵
     1. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives

     . 2023. H.Res. 414: Recognizing that the United States has a moral and legal obligation to provide reparations for the enslavement of Africans and its lasting harm on the lives of millions of Black people in the United States. House Resolution, 118th Cong., 1st sess., May 17. https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-resolution/414/texthttps://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-resolution/414/text.
110. ↵
     1. U.S. Department of the Interior

     . 2007. “Marshall Islands Nuclear Testing Compensation: Statement of Thomas Bussanich, September 25.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/110/S1756_092507.
111. ↵
     1. U.S. Department of State

     . 2009. “Terezin Declaration on Holocaust Era Assets and Related Issues.” Office of the Special Envoy for Holocaust Issues. Accessed December 13, 2023. http://www.state.gov/prague-holocaust-era-assets-conference-terezin-declaration.
112. ↵
     1. Valdez, Jorge Luis, and
     2. Gonzalo Villamonte

     . 2006. “El fenómeno caudillista.” September 6. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20060906085337/http://www.educared.edu.pe/estudiantes/historia6/fenomeno2.htm.
113. ↵
     1. Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC)

     . 2023. “The Closing of Prince Edward County’s Schools.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://virginiahistory.org/learn/historical-book/chapter/closing-prince-edward-countys-schools.
114. ↵
     1. Weltman-Cisneros, Talia

     . 2012. “Shared Pathways in History: Mexico’s President Vicente Guerrero Abolishes Slavery in 1829.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/57b74931b3db2be1cef4e3c8/t/588b99923a041194fc79dff2/1485543828075/shared+pathways+pres+vicente.pdf.
115. ↵
     1. Wikipedia

     . 2022. “Five Civilized Tribes.” Accessed December 13, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes.
116. ↵
     1. World Jewish Restitution Organization (WJRO

     ). 2020. “The Role of the United States in Pursuing Compensation for Holocaust Victims and Heirs and the Historical Bases for U.S. Leadership.” September 23. Accessed December 13, 2023. https://www.claimscon.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/2020.9.23-The-U.S.-Role-in-Holocaust-Compensation-.pdf.
117. ↵
     1. Wrigley-Field, Elizabeth

     . 2024. “Stolen Lives: Redress for Slavery’s and Jim Crow’s Ongoing Theft of Lifespan.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 88–112. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.04.

     OpenUrl