Status and Development: How Social Hierarchy Undermines Well-Being

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. Acemoglu, Daron,
   2. Camilo García-Jimeno, and
   3. James Robinson

   . 2012. “Finding Eldorado: Slavery and Long-Run Development in Colombia.” Journal of Comparative Economics 40(4): 534–64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.07.003.

   OpenUrl
2. ↵
   1. Acharya, Avidit,
   2. Matthew Blackwell, and
   3. Maya Sen

   . 2016. “The Political Legacy of American Slavery.” Journal of Politics 78(3): 621–41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/686631.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Ahuja, Amit

   . 2019. Mobilizing the Marginalized: Ethnic Parties Without Ethnic Movements. New York: Oxford University Press.
4. ↵
   1. Alesina, Alberto, and
   2. Edward Glaeser

   . 2004. Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. ↵
   1. Alesina, Alberto, and
   2. Eliana La Ferrara

   . 2000. “Participation in Heterogeneous Communities.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(3): 847–904. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300554935.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
6. ↵
   1. Alesina, Alberto,
   2. Stelios Michalopoulos, and
   3. Elias Papaioannou

   . 2016. “Ethnic Inequality.” Journal of Political Economy 124(2): 428–88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/685300.

   OpenUrl
7. ↵
   1. Alexander, Amy C

   . 2012. “Change in Women’s Descriptive Representation and the Belief in Women’s Ability to Govern: A Virtuous Cycle.” Politics & Gender 8(4): 437–64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X12000487.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
8. ↵
   1. Alter, Karen J, and
   2. Michael Zürn

   . 2020. “Conceptualising Backlash Politics: Introduction to a Special Issue on Backlash Politics in Comparison.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 22(4): 563–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148120947958.

   OpenUrl
9. ↵
   1. Anderson, Cameron,
   2. John Angus Hildreth, and
   3. Laura Howland

   . 2015. “Is the Desire for Status a Fundamental Human Motive? A Review of the Empirical Literature.” Psychological Bulletin 141(3): 574–601. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038781.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
10. ↵
    1. Baldwin, Kate, and
    2. John Huber

    . 2010. “Economic versus Cultural Differences: Forms of Ethnic Diversity and Public Goods Provision.” American Political Science Review 104(4): 644–62.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
11. ↵
    1. Banerjee, Abhijit,
    2. Lakshmi Iyer, and
    3. Rohini Somanathan

    . 2005. “History, Social Divisions, and Public Goods in Rural India.” Journal of the European Economic Association 3(2/3): 639–47.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Beaman, Lori,
    2. Esther Duflo,
    3. Rohini Pande, and
    4. Petia Topalova

    . 2012. “Female Leadership Raises Aspirations and Educational Attainment for Girls: A Policy Experiment in India.” Science 335(6068): 582–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212382.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
13. ↵
    1. Bearfield, Domonic

    . 2009. “What Is Patronage? A Critical Reexamination.” Public Administration Review 69(1): 64–76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.01941.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
14. ↵
    1. Bertrand, Marianne, and
    2. Sendhil Mullainathan

    . 2004. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review 94(4): 991–1013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828042002561.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
15. ↵
    1. Bharathi, Naveen,
    2. Deepak Malghan, and
    3. Andaleeb Rahman

    . 2015. “Neighbourhood-Scale Residential Segregation in Indian Metros.” Economic and Political Weekly 54(30): 7–8.

    OpenUrl
16. ↵
    1. Bhavnani, Rikhil, and
    2. Alexander Lee

    . 2019. “Does Affirmative Action Worsen Bureaucratic Performance? Evidence from the Indian Administrative Service.” American Journal of Political Science 65(1): 5–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12497.

    OpenUrl
17. ↵
    1. Bloom, Paul

    . 2010. “How Do Morals Change?” Nature 464(7288): 490.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
18. ↵
    1. Boyle, Jennifer Ellen

    . 2010. Anamorphosis in Early Modern Literature: Mediation and Affect. London: Ashgate Publishing.
19. ↵
    1. Brodkin, Karen

    . 1998. How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
20. ↵
    1. Chakrabarti, Poulomi

    . 2019. “One Nation, Many Worlds: Varieties of Developmental Regimes in India.” PhD diss., Brown University.
21. ↵
    1. Chakrabarti, Poulomi

    . 2021. “The Politics of Dignity: How Status Inequality Shaped Redistributive Politics in India.” SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3932850. Rochester, N.Y.: Social Science Research Network. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3932850.
22. ↵
    1. Chandra, Kanchan

    . 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23. ↵
    1. Chandra, Kanchan

    . 2006. “What Is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter?” Annual Review of Political Science 9(1): 397–424. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170715.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
24. ↵
    1. Chandra, Kanchan, and
    2. Omar García-Ponce

    . 2019. “Why Ethnic Subaltern-Led Parties Crowd Out Armed Organizations: Explaining Maoist Violence in India.” World Politics 71(2): 367–416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S004388711800028X.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Chauchard, Simon

    . 2014. “Can Descriptive Representation Change Beliefs about a Stigmatized Group? Evidence from Rural India.” American Political Science Review 108(02): 403–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000033.

    OpenUrl
26. ↵
    1. Coffey, Diane,
    2. Payal Hathi,
    3. Nidhi Khurana, and
    4. Amit Thorat

    . 2018. “Explicit Prejudice.” Economic & Political Weekly 53(1): 47.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Cotterill, Sarah,
    2. James Sidanius,
    3. Arjun Bhardwaj, and
    4. Vivek Kumar

    . 2014. “Ideological Support for the Indian Caste System: Social Dominance Orientation, Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Karma.” Journal of Social and Political Psychology 2(1): 98–116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v2i1.171.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
28. ↵
    1. Coulthard, Glen Sean

    . 2014. Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
29. ↵
    1. Cramer, Katherine J

    . 2016. The Politics of Resentment: Rural Consciousness in Wisconsin and the Rise of Scott Walker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
30. ↵
    1. Curry, Jessica

    . 2018. “Opinion: Looking Up to Michelle Obama.” New York Times, March 12. Accessed June 5, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/12/opinion/michelle-obama-portrait-sherald-parker.html.
31. ↵
    1. Darby, Derrick

    . 2009. Rights, Race, and Recognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. ↵
    1. Deshpande, Ashwini, and
    2. Thomas Weisskopf

    . 2014. “Does Affirmative Action Reduce Productivity? A Case Study of the Indian Railways.” World Development 64(December): 169–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.05.024.

    OpenUrl
33. ↵
    1. Dixon, John,
    2. Mark Levine,
    3. Steve Reicher, and
    4. Kevin Durrheim

    . 2012. “Beyond Prejudice: Are Negative Evaluations the Problem and Is Getting Us to Like One Another More the Solution?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35(6): 411–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11002214.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
34. ↵
    1. Dubow, Saul

    . 1995. Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
35. ↵
    1. Dunning, Thad, and
    2. Janhavi Nilekani

    . 2013. “Ethnic Quotas and Political Mobilization: Caste, Parties, and Distribution in Indian Village Councils.” American Political Science Review 107(01): 35–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055412000573.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Dusenbery, Maya

    . 2018. Doing Harm: The Truth About How Bad Medicine and Lazy Science Leave Women Dismissed, Misdiagnosed, and Sick. New York: HarperOne.
37. ↵
    1. Ejdemyr, Simon,
    2. Eric Kramon, and
    3. Amanda Lea Robinson

    . 2018. “Segregation, Ethnic Favoritism, and the Strategic Targeting of Local Public Goods.” Comparative Political Studies 51(9). SAGE Publications Inc: 1111–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414017730079.

    OpenUrl
38. ↵
    1. Esping-Andersen, Gosta

    . 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press.
39. ↵
    1. Fanon, Frantz

    . 2008. Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove Press.
40. ↵
    1. Fernandez, Sergio,
    2. Samuel Koma, and
    3. Hongseok Lee

    . 2018. “Establishing the Link between Representative Bureaucracy and Performance: The South African Case.” Governance 31(3): 535–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12319.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Finkelman, Paul

    . 2012. “Opinion: The Real Thomas Jefferson.” New York Times, November 30. Accessed June 5, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html.
42. ↵
    1. Fong, Christina

    . 2001. “Social Preferences, Self-Interest, and the Demand for Redistribution.” Journal of Public Economics 82(2): 225–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(00)00141-9.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
43. ↵
    1. Fraser, Nancy

    . 1995. “From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a ‘Post-Socialist’ Age.” New Left Review 1(212): 68–93.

    OpenUrl
44. ↵
    1. Freedman, Joshua

    . 2020. “Back of the Queue: Brexit, Status Loss, and the Politics of Backlash.” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 22(4): 631–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148120949824.

    OpenUrl
45. ↵
    1. Galanter, Marc

    . 1984. Competing Equalities: Law and the Backward Classes in India. Berkeley: University of California Press.
46. ↵
    1. Gethin, Amory,
    2. Clara Martínez-Toledano, and
    3. Thomas Piketty

    . 2021. “Brahmin Left Versus Merchant Right: Changing Political Cleavages in 21 Western Democracies, 1948–2020.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 137(1): 1–48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjab036.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Golway, Terry

    . 2014. Machine Made: Tammany Hall and the Creation of Modern American Politics. New York: Liveright.
48. ↵
    1. Griffin, John D., and
    2. Michael Keane

    . 2006. “Descriptive Representation and the Composition of African American Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 50(4): 998–1012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00229.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
49. ↵
    1. Gusfield, Joseph

    . 1986. Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
50. ↵
    1. Habyarimana, James,
    2. Daniel Posner,
    3. Macartan Humphreys, and
    4. Jeremy Weinstein

    . 2007. “Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision? An Experimental Approach.” American Political Science Review 101(4): 709–25.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
51. ↵
    1. Hajnal, Zoltan L

    . 2001. “White Residents, Black Incumbents, and a Declining Racial Divide.” American Political Science Review 95(3): 603–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055401003033.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
52. ↵
    1. Harris, Allison P

    . 2020. “Can Racial Diversity Among Judges Affect Sentencing Outcomes?” Unpublished paper.
53. ↵
    1. Heller, Patrick

    . 2020. “The Age of Reaction: Retrenchment Populism in India and Brazil.” International Sociology 35(6): 590–609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580920949979.

    OpenUrl
54. ↵
    1. Hoekstra, Mark, and
    2. CarlyWill Sloan

    . 2022. “Does Race Matter for Police Use of Force? Evidence from 911 Calls.” American Economic Review 112(3): 827–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20201292.

    OpenUrl
55. ↵
    1. Hoff, Karla, and
    2. Priyanka Pandey

    . 2006. “Discrimination, Social Identity, and Durable Inequalities.” American Economic Review 96(2): 206–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/30034643.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
56. ↵
    1. Hoffman, Kelly M.,
    2. Sophie Trawalter,
    3. Jordan R. Axt, and
    4. M. Norman Oliver

    . 2016. “Racial Bias in Pain Assessment and Treatment Recommendations, and False Beliefs about Biological Differences between Blacks and Whites.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(16): 4296–4301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516047113.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
57. ↵
    1. Horowitz, Donald

    . 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.
58. ↵
    1. Houle, Christian

    . 2017. “Inequality, Ethnic Diversity, and Redistribution.” Journal of Economic Inequality 15(1): 1–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9340-8.

    OpenUrl
59. ↵
    1. Huber, Evelyne,
    2. Charles Ragin, and
    3. John D. Stephens

    . 1993. “Social Democracy, Christian Democracy, Constitutional Structure, and the Welfare State.” American Journal of Sociology 99(3): 711–49.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
60. ↵
    1. Ince, Onur Ulas

    . 2022. “Deprovincializing Racial Capitalism: John Crawfurd and Settler Colonialism in India.” American Political Science Review 116(1): 144–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000939.

    OpenUrl
61. ↵
    1. Jackman, Mary R

    . 1994. The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations. Berkeley: University of California Press.
62. ↵
    1. Jaffrelot, Christophe

    . 2003. India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India. New York: Columbia University Press.
63. ↵
    1. Jensenius, Francesca

    . 2017. Social Justice Through Inclusion: The Consequences of Electoral Quotas in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
64. ↵
    1. Jost, John T., and
    2. Mahzarin R. Banaji

    . 1994. “The Role of Stereotyping in System-Justification and the Production of False Consciousness.” British Journal of Social Psychology 33(1): 1–27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
65. ↵
    1. Jost, John T.,
    2. Mahzarin R. Banaji, and
    3. Brian A. Nosek

    . 2004. “A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo.” Political Psychology 25(6): 881–919. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.x.

    OpenUrl
66. ↵
    1. Kalev, Alexandra,
    2. Frank Dobbin, and
    3. Erin Kelly

    . 2006. “Best Practices or Best Guesses? Assessing the Efficacy of Corporate Affirmative Action and Diversity Policies.” American Sociological Review 71(4): 589–617. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100404.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
67. ↵
    1. Kelman, Herbert G

    . 1973. “Violence without Moral Restraint: Reflections on the Dehumanization of Victims and Victimizers.” Journal of Social Issues 29(4): 25–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00102.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
68. ↵
    1. Kohli, Atul

    . 2020. Imperialism and the Developing World: How Britain and the United States Shaped the Global Periphery. New York: Oxford University Press.
69. ↵
    1. Kolbert, Elizabeth

    . 2018. “There’s No Scientific Basis for Race—It’s a Made-Up Label.” National Geographic, April 1. Accessed June 5, 2022. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/04/race-genetics-science-africa/.
70. ↵
    1. Koonz, Claudia

    . 2003. The Nazi Conscience. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
71. ↵
    1. Kruks-Wisner, Gabrielle

    . 2018. Claiming the State: Active Citizenship and Social Welfare in Rural India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
72. ↵
    1. Kteily, Nour S., and
    2. Alexander P. Landry

    . 2022. “Dehumanization: Trends, Insights, and Challenges.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 26(3): 222–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.12.003.

    OpenUrl
73. ↵
    1. Kustov, Alexander, and
    2. Giuliana Pardelli

    . 2018. “Ethnoracial Homogeneity and Public Outcomes: The (Non)Effects of Diversity.” American Political Science Review 112(4): 1096–1103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000308.

    OpenUrl
74. ↵
    1. Kymlicka, Will

    . 1995. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
75. ↵
    1. Lamont, Michèle

    . 2018. “Addressing Recognition Gaps: Destigmatization and the Reduction of Inequality.” American Sociological Review 83(3): 419–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418773775.

    OpenUrl
76. ↵
    1. Luebbert, Gregory M

    . 1991. Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe. New York: Oxford University Press.
77. ↵
    1. Lukes, Steven

    . 1997. “Humiliation and the Politics of Identity.” Social Research 64(1): 36–51.

    OpenUrl
78. ↵
    1. Lupu, Noam, and
    2. Jonas Pontusson

    . 2011. “The Structure of Inequality and the Politics of Redistribution.” American Political Science Review 105(2): 316–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055411000128.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
79. ↵
    1. Mansbridge, Jane

    . 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.’” Journal of Politics 61(3): 628–57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
80. ↵
    1. Marwah, Inder S.,
    2. Jennifer Pitts,
    3. Timothy Bowers Vasko,
    4. Onur Ulas Ince, and
    5. Robert Nichols

    . 2020. “Empire and Its Afterlives.” Contemporary Political Theory 19(2): 274–305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41296-020-00391-8.

    OpenUrl
81. ↵
    1. Mehta, Uday Singh

    . 1999. Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
82. ↵
    1. Mendelberg, Tali

    . 2022. “Status, Symbols, and Politics: A Theory of Symbolic Status Politics.” RSF: Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 8(6): 50–68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2022.8.6.03.

    OpenUrl
83. ↵
    1. Miguel, Edward, and
    2. Mary Kay Gugerty

    . 2005. “Ethnic Diversity, Social Sanctions, and Public Goods in Kenya.” Journal of Public Economics 89(11–12): 2325–68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.09.004.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
84. ↵
    1. Mill, John Stuart

    . 1865. On Liberty. London: Longmans, Green.
85. ↵
    1. Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, and
    2. James Q. Wilson

    . 1964. “Patronage in New York State, 1955–1959.” American Political Science Review 58(2): 286–301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1952863.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
86. ↵
    1. Mutz, Diana

    . 2018. “Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Explains the 2016 Presidential Vote.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19): E4330–39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718155115.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
87. ↵
    1. Nandy, Ashis

    . 1983. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
88. ↵
    1. Nussbaum, Martha C

    . 2000. “Aristotle, Politics, and Human Capabilities: A Response to Antony, Arneson, Charlesworth, and Mulgan.” Ethics 111(1): 102–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/233421.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
89. ↵
    1. Nussbaum, Martha C

    . 2011. Creating Capabilities. Reprint edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
90. ↵
    1. Paluck, Elizabeth Levy

    . 2009. “What’s in a Norm? Sources and Processes of Norm Change.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96(3): 594–600.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
91. ↵
    1. Paluck, Elizabeth Levy

    . 2012. “The Dominance of the Individual in Intergroup Relations Research: Understanding Social Change Requires Psychological Theories of Collective and Structural Phenomena.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35(6): 443–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12001288.

    OpenUrl
92. ↵
    1. Paluck, Elizabeth Levy,
    2. Seth A. Green, and
    3. Donald P. Green

    . 2019. “The Contact Hypothesis Re-Evaluated.” Behavioural Public Policy 3(2): 129–58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2018.25.

    OpenUrl
93. ↵
    1. Pantoja, Adrian D., and
    2. Gary M. Segura

    . 2003. “Does Ethnicity Matter? Descriptive Representation in Legislatures and Political Alienation Among Latinos*.” Social Science Quarterly 84(2): 441–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402014.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
94. ↵
    1. Pardelli, Giuliana, and
    2. Alexander Kustov

    . 2022. “When Coethnicity Fails.” World Politics, February. Cambridge University Press, 1–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887121000241.
95. ↵
    1. Pettigrew, Thomas F., and
    2. Linda R. Tropp

    . 2006. “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90(5): 751–83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
96. ↵
    1. Piven, Frances Fox, and
    2. Richard Cloward

    . 1979. Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. New York: Vintage Books.
97. ↵
    1. Posner, Daniel

    . 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
98. ↵
    1. Postero, Nancy

    . 2017. The Indigenous State: Race, Politics, and Performance in Plurinational Bolivia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
99. ↵
    1. Preuhs, Robert R

    . 2006. “The Conditional Effects of Minority Descriptive Representation: Black Legislators and Policy Influence in the American States.” Journal of Politics 68(3): 585–99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00447.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
100. ↵
     1. Preuhs, Robert R

     . 2007. “Descriptive Representation as a Mechanism to Mitigate Policy Backlash: Latino Incorporation and Welfare Policy in the American States.” Political Research Quarterly 60(2): 277–92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912907301981.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
101. ↵
     1. Quadagno, Jill S

     . 1994. The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
102. ↵
     1. Rai, Tage S.,
     2. Piercarlo Valdesolo, and
     3. Jesse Graham

     . 2017. “Dehumanization Increases Instrumental Violence, but Not Moral Violence.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(32): 8511–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1705238114.

     OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
103. ↵
     1. Rao, Vijayendra, and
     2. Paromita Sanyal

     . 2010. “Dignity through Discourse: Poverty and the Culture of Deliberation in Indian Village Democracies.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 629(1): 146–72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716209357402.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
104. ↵
     1. Ravallion, Martin

     . 2016. The Economics of Poverty: History, Measurement, and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190212766.001.0001.
105. ↵
     1. Ray, Tridip,
     2. Arka Roy Chaudhuri, and
     3. Komal Sahai

     . 2020. “Whose Education Matters? An Analysis of Inter Caste Marriages in India.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 176(August): 619–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.02.011.

     OpenUrl
106. ↵
     1. Ridgeway, Cecilia

     . 2014. “Why Status Matters for Inequality.” American Sociological Review 79(1): 1–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413515997.

     OpenUrlCrossRef
107. ↵
     1. Ridgeway, Cecilia

     . 2019. Status: Why Is It Everywhere? Why Does It Matter? New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
108. ↵
     1. Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and
     2. Hazel Rose Markus

     . 2022. “The Significance of Status: What It Is and How It Shapes Inequality.” RSF: Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 8(6): 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2022.8.6.01.

     OpenUrl
109. ↵
     1. Robinson, Cedric J

     . 1983. Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. London: Zed Press.
110. ↵
     1. Rocha, Rene R.,
     2. Caroline J. Tolbert,
     3. Daniel C. Bowen, and
     4. Christopher J. Clark

     . 2010. “Race and Turnout: Does Descriptive Representation in State Legislatures Increase Minority Voting?” Political Research Quarterly 63(4): 890–907. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912910376388.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
111. ↵
     1. Roediger, David R

     . 2005. Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs. New York: Basic Books.
112. ↵
     1. Roemer, John E

     . 2009. Equality of Opportunity. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
113. ↵
     1. Rosenfeld, Michael J

     . 2017. “Moving a Mountain: The Extraordinary Trajectory of Same-Sex Marriage Approval in the United States.” Socius 3(January): 2378023117727658. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023117727658.

     OpenUrl
114. ↵
     1. Rueschemeyer, Dietrich,
     2. Evelyne Huber, and
     3. John Stephens

     . 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
115. ↵
     1. Saini, Angela

     . 2019. Superior: The Return of Race Science. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press.
116. ↵
     1. Sandbrook, Richard,
     2. Marc Edelman,
     3. Patrick Heller, and
     4. Judith Teichman

     . 2007. Social Democracy in the Global Periphery: Origins, Challenges, Prospects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
117. ↵
     1. Satia, Priya

     . 2020. Time’s Monster: How History Makes History. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.
118. ↵
     1. Satia, Priya

     . 2021. “Britain’s Culture War: Disguising Imperial Politics as Historical Debate about Empire.” Journal of Genocide Research, September, 1–13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2021.1968137.
119. ↵
     1. Scherer, Nancy, and
     2. Brett Curry

     . 2010. “Does Descriptive Race Representation Enhance Institutional Legitimacy? The Case of the U.S. Courts.” Journal of Politics 72(1): 90–104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990491.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
120. ↵
     1. Sen, Amartya

     . 1999. Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
121. ↵
     1. Shayo, Moses

     . 2009. “A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy: Nation, Class, and Redistribution.” American Political Science Review 103(2): 147–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055409090194.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
122. ↵
     1. Sidanius, Jim, and
     2. Felicia Pratto

     . 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
123. ↵
     1. Singh, Prerna, and
     2. Matthias vom Hau

     . 2016. “Ethnicity in Time: Politics, History, and the Relationship between Ethnic Diversity and Public Goods Provision.” Comparative Political Studies 49(10): 1303–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016633231.

     OpenUrlCrossRef
124. ↵
     1. Smith, David Livingstone

     . 2011. Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
125. ↵
     1. Steele, Claude, and
     2. Joshua Aronson

     . 1995. “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69(5): 797–811.

     OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
126. ↵
     1. Steele, Jennifer, and
     2. Nalini Ambady

     . 2006. “Math Is Hard: The Effect of Gender Priming on Women’s Attitudes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42(4): 428–36. citeulike-article-id:6089208.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
127. ↵
     1. Stone, Jeff,
     2. Christian I. Lynch,
     3. Mike Sjomeling, and
     4. John M. Darley

     . 1999. “Stereotype Threat Effects on Black and White Athletic Performance.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(6): 1213–27.

     OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
128. ↵
     1. Suryanarayan, Pavithra

     . 2019. “When Do the Poor Vote for the Right Wing and Why: Status Hierarchy and Vote Choice in the Indian States.” Comparative Political Studies 52(2): 209–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018758752.

     OpenUrl
129. ↵
     1. Táíwò, Olúfẹ́mi O

     . 2022. Elite Capture: How the Powerful Took Over Identity Politics (And Everything Else). Chicago: Haymarket Books.
130. ↵
     1. Tajima, Yuhki,
     2. Krislert Samphantharak, and
     3. Kai Ostwald

     . 2018. “Ethnic Segregation and Public Goods: Evidence from Indonesia.” American Political Science Review 112(3): 637–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000138.

     OpenUrl
131. ↵
     1. Charles Taylor and
     2. Amy Gutmann

     1. Taylor, Charles

     . 1994. “The Politics of Recognition.” In Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, edited by Charles Taylor and Amy Gutmann. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
132. ↵
     1. B R Ambedkar

     1. Teltumbde, Anand

     . 2017. “Introduction: Bridging the Unholy Rift.” In India and Communism, by B R Ambedkar. New Delhi: LeftWord.
133. 1. Thorat, Amit, and
     2. Omkar Joshi

     . 2020. “The Continuing Practice of Untouchability in India.” Economic & Political Weekly 55(2): 36–45.

     OpenUrl
134. ↵
     1. Thorat, Sukhadeo, and
     2. Katherine S. Newman

     . 2007. “Caste and Economic Discrimination: Causes, Consequences and Remedies.” Economic and Political Weekly 42(41): 4121–24.

     OpenUrl
135. ↵
     1. Tilly, Charles

     . 1998. Durable Inequality. Berkeley: University of California Press.
136. ↵
     1. Uslaner, Eric M

     . 2012. Segregation and Mistrust: Diversity, Isolation, and Social Cohesion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
137. ↵
     1. Weber, Max

     . 1978. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
138. ↵
     1. Weiner, Myron

     . 1991. The Child and the State in India: Child Labor and Education Policy in Comparative Perspective. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
139. ↵
     1. Wikimedia Commons

     . 2020. “File:Statue of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar in front of Indian Parliament Perennially Directing Its Proceedings Against Social Reaction!.jpg.” Last edited October 30, 2020. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_of_Dr._Babasaheb_Ambedkar_in_front_of_Indian_Parliament_perennially_directing_its_proceedings_against_social_reaction!.jpg.
140. ↵
     1. Wikimedia Commons

     . 2021. “File:Ms. Mayawati’s Statues Akin to Emblem of India, the Four Asiatic Lions.jpg.” Last updated December 21, 2021. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ms._Mayawati%27s_statues_akin_to_Emblem_of_India,_the_four_Asiatic_lions.jpg.
141. ↵
     1. Wimmer, Andreas

     . 2016. “Is Diversity Detrimental? Ethnic Fractionalization, Public Goods Provision, and the Historical Legacies of Stateness.” Comparative Political Studies 49(11): 1407–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414015592645.

     OpenUrl
142. ↵
     1. Witsoe, Jeffrey

     . 2013. Democracy against Development: Lower-Caste Politics and Political Modernity in Postcolonial India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
143. ↵
     1. Zinn, Howard

     . 2014. Disobedience and Democracy: Nine Fallacies on Law and Order. 2nd ed. Chicago: Haymarket Books.