Locked Out of the Labor Market? State-Level Hidden Sentences and the Labor Market Outcomes of Recently Incarcerated Young Adults

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. American Bar Association (ABA)

   . 2013. “National Inventory of the Collateral Consequences of Conviction.” Chicago: American Bar Association. Accessed January 23, 2020. https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org.
2. ↵
   1. Apel, Robert, and
   2. Kathleen Powell

   . 2019. “Level of Criminal Justice Contact and Early Adult Wage Inequality.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 5(1): 198–222. DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2019.5.1.09.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
3. ↵
   1. Apel, Robert, and
   2. Anke Ramakers

   . 2019. “Impact of Incarceration on Employment Prospects.” In Handbook of the Consequences of Sentencing and Punishment Decisions, edited by Beth M. Huebner and Natasha A. Frost. New York: Routledge.
4. ↵
   1. Apel, Robert, and
   2. Gary Sweeten

   . 2010. “The Impact of Incarceration on Employment during the Transition to Adulthood.” Social Problems 57(3): 448–79.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
5. ↵
   1. Beckett, Katherine, and
   2. Steve Herbert

   . 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America. New York: Oxford University Press.
6. ↵
   1. Blau, Peter M., and
   2. Otis Dudley Duncan

   . 1967. The American Occupational Structure. New York: Free Press.
7. ↵
   1. Brayne, Sarah

   . 2014. “Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment.” American Sociological Review 79(3): 367–91. DOI: 10.1177/0003122414530398.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
8. ↵
   1. Burden, Barry C.,
   2. David T. Canon,
   3. Kenneth R. Mayer, and
   4. Donald P. Moynihan

   . 2014. “Election Laws, Mobilization, and Turnout: The Unanticipated Consequences of Election Reform.” American Journal of Political Science 58(1): 95–109. DOI: 10.1111/ajps.12063.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
9. ↵
   1. Cadigan, Michele, and
   2. Gabriela Kirk

   . 2020. “On Thin Ice: Bureaucratic Processes of Monetary Sanctions and Job Insecurity.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 6(1): 113–31. DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2020.6.1.05.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
10. ↵
    1. Carson, E. Ann

    . 2018. “Prisoners in 2016.” CNJ 251149. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
11. ↵
    1. Cheng, Siwei

    . 2014. “A Life Course Trajectory Framework for Understanding the Intracohort Pattern of Wage Inequality.” American Journal of Sociology 120(3): 633–700. DOI: 10.1086/679103.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
12. ↵
    1. Chin, Gabriel J

    . 2011. “The New Civil Death: Rethinking Punishment in the Era of Mass Conviction.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 160(6): 1789–833.

    OpenUrl
13. ↵
    1. Danziger, Sheldon, and
    2. David Ratner

    . 2010. “Labor Market Outcomes and the Transition to Adulthood.” The Future of Children 20(1): 133–58.

    OpenUrlPubMed
14. ↵
    1. DiPrete, Thomas A., and
    2. Gregory M. Eirich

    . 2006. “Cumulative Advantage as a Mechanism for Inequality: A Review of Theoretical and Empirical Developments.” Annual Review of Sociology 32(1): 271–97.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
15. ↵
    1. Ewald, Alec C

    . 2012. “Collateral Consequences in the American States.” Social Science Quarterly 93(1): 211–47. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540–6237.2011.00831.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
16. ↵
    1. Geller, Amanda, and
    2. Marah A. Curtis

    . 2011. “A Sort of Homecoming: Incarceration and the Housing Security of Urban Men.” Social Science Research 40(4): 1196–1213. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.03.008.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
17. ↵
    1. Harris, Alexes

    . 2016. A Pound of Flesh: Monetary Sanctions as Punishment for the Poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
18. ↵
    1. Heinrich, Carolyn J

    . 2018. “Presidential Address: ‘A Thousand Petty Fortresses’: Administrative Burden in U.S. Immigration Policies and Its Consequences.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 37(2): 211–39. DOI: 10.1002/pam.22046.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
19. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela, and
    2. Donald P. Moynihan

    . 2019. Administrative Burden: Policymaking by Other Means. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
20. ↵
    1. Holzer, Harry J

    . 1996. What Employers Want: Job Prospects for Less-Educated Workers. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
21. ↵
    1. Hoxby, Caroline M., and
    2. Sarah Turner

    . 2015. “What High-Achieving Low-Income Students Know about College.” American Economic Review 105(5): 514–17. DOI: 10.1257/aer.p20151027.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
22. ↵
    1. Kaiser, Joshua H

    . 2016. “Revealing the Hidden Sentence: How to Add Transparency, Legitimacy, and Purpose to Collateral Punishment Policy.” Harvard Law & Policy Review 10(1): 123–84.

    OpenUrl
23. ↵
    1. Kirk, David S., and
    2. Sara Wakefield

    . 2017. “Collateral Consequences of Punishment: A Critical Review and Path Forward.” Annual Review of Criminology 1:171–94. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092045.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
24. ↵
    1. Love, Margaret, and
    2. David Schlussel

    . 2019. “Reducing Barriers to Reintegration: Fair Chance and Expungement Reforms in 2018.” Washington, D.C.: Collateral Consequences Resource Center.
25. ↵
    1. Lyons, Christopher J., and
    2. Becky Pettit

    . 2011. “Compounded Disadvantage: Race, Incarceration, and Wage Growth.” Social Problems 58(2): 257–80. DOI: 10.1525/sp.2011.58.2.257.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
26. ↵
    1. Miller, Reuben Jonathan, and
    2. Forrest Stuart

    . 2017. “Carceral Citizenship: Race, Rights and Responsibility in the Age of Mass Supervision.” Theoretical Criminology 21(4): 532–48.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Moynihan, Donald P.,
    2. Pamela Herd, and
    3. Elizabeth Ribgy

    . 2016. “Policymaking by Other Means: Do States Use Administrative Barriers to Limit Access to Medicaid?” Administration & Society 48(4): 497–524. DOI: 10.1177/0095399713503540.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
28. ↵
    1. Pager, Devah

    . 2003. “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology 108(5): 937–75.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
29. ↵
    1. Pager, Devah

    . 2007. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
30. ↵
    1. Paternoster, Raymond,
    2. Robert Brame,
    3. Paul Mazerolle, and
    4. Alex Piquero

    . 1998. “Using the Correct Statistical Test for the Equality of Regression Coefficients.” Criminology 36(4): 859–66. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01268.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
31. ↵
    1. Petersilia, Joan

    . 2003. When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.
32. ↵
    1. Pettit, Becky, and
    2. Bruce Western

    . 2004. “Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration.” American Sociological Review 69(2): 151–69. DOI: 10.1177/000312240406900201.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
33. ↵
    1. Plassmeyer, Mark, and
    2. Shannon Sliva

    . 2018. “Social Exclusion as a State-Level Predictor of Changes in Collateral Sanctions.” Criminal Justice Review 43(2): 236–51. DOI: 10.1177/0734016817721292.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
34. ↵
    1. Raphael, Steven

    . 2007. “Early Incarceration Spells and the Transition to Adulthood.” In The Price of Independence: The Economies of Early Adulthood, edited by Sheldon Danziger and Cecilia E. Rouse. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
35. ↵
    1. Remster, Brianna, and
    2. Rory Kramer

    . 2018. “Race, Space, and Surveillance: Understanding the Relationship Between Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Involvement.” Socius 4(January): 2378023118761434. DOI: 10.1177/2378023118761434.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Rindfuss, Ronald R

    . 1991. “The Young Adult Years: Diversity, Structural Change, and Fertility.” Demography 28(4): 493–512.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
37. ↵
    1. Sampson, Robert J., and
    2. John H. Laub

    . 1992. “Crime and Deviance in the Life Course.” Annual Review of Sociology 18: 63–84.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
38. ↵
    1. Shannon, Sarah K.S.,
    2. Christopher Uggen,
    3. Jason Schnittker,
    4. Melissa Thompson,
    5. Sara Wakefield, and
    6. Michael Massoglia

    . 2017. “The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People with Felony Records in the United States, 1948–2010.” Demography, September, 1–24. DOI: 10.1007/s13524-017-0611-1.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
39. ↵
    1. Silva, Jennifer M

    . 2012. “Constructing Adulthood in an Age of Uncertainty.” American Sociological Review 77(4): 505–22. DOI: 10.1177/0003122412449014.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
40. ↵
    1. Sironi, Maria

    . 2018. “Economic Conditions of Young Adults Before and After the Great Recession.” Journal of Family and Economic Issues 39(1): 103–16. DOI: 10.1007/s10834–017–9554–3.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
41. ↵
    1. Stavsky, Mark M

    . 2002. “No Guns or Butter for Thomas Bean: Firearms Disabilities and Their Occupational Consequences.” Fordham Urban Law Review 30(5): 1759–813.

    OpenUrl
42. ↵
    1. Steinberg, Laurence,
    2. He Len Chung, and
    3. Michelle Little

    . 2004. “Reentry of Young Offenders from the Justice System: A Developmental Perspective.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 2(1): 21–38. DOI: 10.1177/1541204003260045.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
43. ↵
    1. Sugie, Naomi F., and
    2. Kristin Turney

    . 2017. “Beyond Incarceration: Criminal Justice Contact and Mental Health.” American Sociological Review 82(4): 719–43. DOI: 10.1177/0003122417713188.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
44. ↵
    1. Swartz, Teresa Toguchi,
    2. Heather McLaughlin, and
    3. Jeylan T. Mortimer

    . 2017. “Parental Assistance, Negative Life Events, and Attainment During the Transition to Adulthood.” Sociological Quarterly 58(1): 91–110. DOI: 10.1080/00380253.2016.1246898.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
45. ↵
    1. Sykes, Bryan L., and
    2. Michelle Maroto

    . 2016. “A Wealth of Inequalities: Mass Incarceration, Employment, and Racial Disparities in U.S. Household Wealth, 1996 to 2011.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 2(6): 129–52. DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2016.2.6.07.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
46. ↵
    1. Travis, Jeremy

    . 2002. “Invisible Punishment: An Instrument of Social Exclusion.” In Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment, edited by Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind. New York: New Press.
47. ↵
    1. Travis, Jeremy, and
    2. Bruce Western

    . 2014. “The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences.” Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. http://johnjay.jjay.cuny.edu/nrc/nas_report_on_incarceration.pdf.
48. ↵
    1. Uggen, Christopher, and
    2. Jeff Manza

    . 2002. “Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States.” American Sociological Review 67(6): 777–803.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
49. ↵
    1. Uggen, Christopher, and
    2. Robert Stewart

    . 2014. “Piling on: Collateral Consequences and Community Supervision.” Minnesota Law Review 99(5): 1871–910.

    OpenUrl
50. ↵
    1. Uggen, Christopher,
    2. Mike Vuolo,
    3. Sarah Lageson,
    4. Ebony Ruhland, and
    5. Hilary K. Whitham

    . 2014. “The Edge of Stigma: An Experimental Audit of the Effects of Low-Level Criminal Records on Employment.” Criminology 52(4): 627–54. DOI: 10.1111/1745–9125.12051.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
51. 1. University of Kentucky Center for Poverty Research (UKCPR)

    . 2019. “UKCPR National Welfare Data, 1980–2017.” Lexington, Ky. Accessed October 7, 2019. http://ukcpr.org/resources/national-welfare-data.
52. 1. U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics

    . 2017. National Prisoner Statistics Program (NPS). Washington: Office of Justice Programs.
53. 1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor

    . 2015. National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohort, 1997–2015. Columbus, Ohio: Center for Human Resource Research, Ohio State University.
54. 1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2000. “Census 2000 Summary File 1.” Retrieved from https://www.socialexplorer.com/ (accessed October 7, 2019).
55. 1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2010. “Census 2010 Summary File 1.” Retrieved from https://www.socialexplorer.com/ (accessed October 7, 2019).
56. 1. U.S. Census Bureau

    . 2017. “2005–2015 American Community Survey 1-Year State-Level Estimates.” Retrieved from https://www.socialexplorer.com/ (accessed October 7, 2019).
57. ↵
    1. Vallas, Rebecca, and
    2. Sharon Dietrich

    . 2014. One Strike and You’re Out: How We Can Eliminate Barriers to Economic Security and Mobility for People with Criminal Records. Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress. Accessed September 27, 2019. https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/VallasCriminalRecordsReport.pdf.
58. ↵
    1. Wakefield, Sara, and
    2. Robert Apel

    . 2016. “Criminal Justice and the Life Course.” In Handbook of the Life Course, vol. II, edited by Michael J. Shanahan, Jeylan T. Mortimer, and Monica Kirkpatrick Johnson. Cham: Springer International. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319–20880-0_13.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
59. ↵
    1. Wakefield, Sara, and
    2. Christopher Uggen

    . 2010. “Incarceration and Stratification.” Annual Review of Sociology 36(1): 387–406. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
60. ↵
    1. Waldo, James,
    2. Herbert S. Lin, and
    3. Lynette I. Millett

    , eds. 2007. Engaging Privacy and Information Technology in a Digital Age. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
61. ↵
    1. Western, Bruce

    . 2002. “The Impact of Incarceration on Wage Mobility and Inequality.” American Sociological Review 67(4): 526–46.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
62. ↵
    1. Western, Bruce

    . 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
63. ↵
    1. Western, Bruce, and
    2. Becky Pettit

    . 2005. “Black-White Wage Inequality, Employment Rates, and Incarceration.” American Journal of Sociology 111(2): 553–78. DOI: 10.1086/432780.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
64. ↵
    1. Western, Bruce, and
    2. Catherine Sirois

    . 2018. “Racialized Re-Entry: Labor Market Inequality After Incarceration.” Social Forces 97(4): 1–26. DOI: 10.1093/sf/soy096.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
65. ↵
    1. Whittle, Tanya N

    . 2018. “Felony Collateral Sanctions Effects on Recidivism: A Literature Review.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 29(5): 505–24. DOI: 10.1177/0887403415623328.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
66. ↵
    1. Zatz, Noah D., and
    2. Michael A. Stoll

    . 2020. “Working to Avoid Incarceration: Jail Threat and Labor Market Outcomes for Noncustodial Fathers Facing Child Support Enforcement.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 6(1): 55–81. DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2020.6.1.03.

    OpenUrlCrossRef