Assessing the Political Distinctiveness of White Millennials: How Race and Generation Shape Racial and Political Attitudes in a Changing America

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   Abrajano, Marisa, and Zoltan Hajnal. 2015. White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
2. ↵
   1. Abrajano, Marisa, and
   2. Lydia Lundgren

   . 2015. “How Watershed Immigration Policies Affect American Public Opinion over a Lifetime.” International Migration Review 49(1): 70–105. DOI: 10.1111/imre.12082.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
3. ↵
   Allport, Gordon. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
4. ↵
   1. Alwin, Duane F., and
   2. Jon A. Krosnick

   . 1991. “Aging, Cohorts, and the Stability of Sociopolitical Orientations over the Life Span.” American Journal of Sociology 97(1): 169–95. DOI: 10.1086/229744.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
5. ↵
   Ansolabehere, Stephen. 2013. Cooperative Congressional Election Study, 2012: Common Content [Computer File]. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://cces.gov.harvard.edu.
6. ↵
   Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Brian F. Schaffner. 2017. Cooperative Congressional Election Study, 2016: Common Content [Computer File]. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://cces.gov.harvard.edu.
7. ↵
   1. Barreto, Matt, and
   2. Francisco Pedraza

   . 2009. “The Renewal and Persistence of Group Identification in American Politics.” Electoral Studies 28(4): 595–605.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
8. ↵
   1. Blumer, Herbert

   . 1958. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” Pacific Sociological Review 1(1): 3–7.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
9. ↵
   1. Bobo, Lawrence

   . 1999. “Prejudice as Group Position: Microfoundations of a Sociological Approach to Racism and Race Relations.” Journal of Social Issues 55(3): 445–72.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
10. ↵
    1. Bobo, Lawrence, and
    2. Vincent Hutchings

    . 1996. “Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context.” American Sociological Review 61(6): 951–72.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
11. ↵
    1. Branscombe, Nyla R.,
    2. Michael T. Schmitt, and
    3. Kristin Schiffhauer

    . 2007. “Racial Attitudes in Response to Thoughts of White Privilege.” European Journal of Social Psychology 37(2): 203–15.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Branton, Regina

    . 2007. “Latino Attitudes Toward Various Areas of Public Policy.” Political Research Quarterly 60(2): 293–303.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
13. ↵
    Brownstein, Ronald. 2016. “How Trump Pushed Millennials Out of the Republican Party.” The Atlantic, November 3, 2016. Accessed January 24, 2018. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/11/trump-alienates-millennials/506345/.
14. ↵
    Cillizza, Chris. 2014. “Republican’s Young People Problem.” Washington Post, March 9, 2014. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/republicans-have-another-major-demographic-issue-on-their-hands/2014/03/09/398deb46-a79d-11e3–8599-ce7295b6851c_story.html.
15. ↵
    Cohn, D’Vera. 2016. “It’s Official: Minority Babies Are the Majority Among the Nation’s Infants, but Only Just.” Pew Research Center. June 23, 2016. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/23/its-official-minority-babies-are-the-majority-among-the-nations-infants-but-only-just/.
16. ↵
    1. Cook, Zachary F

    . 2014. “How Impressionable Were the Younger Reagan Cohorts?” The Forum 12(3): 481–97. DOI: 10.1515/for-2014–5017.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
17. ↵
    1. Craig, Maureen A., and
    2. Jennifer A. Richeson

    . 2014a. “More Diverse Yet Less Tolerant? How the Increasingly Diverse Racial Landscape Affects White Americans’ Racial Attitudes.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40(6): 750–61.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
18. ↵
    1. Craig, Maureen A., and
    2. Jennifer A. Richeson

    . 2014b. “On the Precipice of a ‘Majority-Minority’ America: Perceived Status Threat from the Racial Demographic Shift Affects White Americans’ Political Ideology.” Psychological Science 25(6): 1189–97.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
19. 1. Craig, Maureen A., and
    2. Jennifer A. Richeson

    . 2018. “Majority No More? The Influence of Neighborhood Racial Diversity and Salient National Population Changes on Whites’ Perceptions of Racial Discrimination.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4(5): 141–57. DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2018.4.5.07.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
20. ↵
    Cramer, Katherine J. 2016. The Politics of Resentment: Rural Consciousness in Wisconsin and the Rise of Scott Walker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
21. ↵
    1. Danbold, Felix, and
    2. Yuen J. Huo

    . 2014. “No Longer ‘All-American’? Whites’ Defensive Reactions to Their Numerical Decline.” Social, Psychological, and Personality Science 6(2): 210–18. DOI: 10.1177/1948550614546355.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
22. ↵
    1. Danigelis, Nicholas L.,
    2. Stephen J. Culter, and
    3. Melissa Hardy

    . 2007. “Population Aging, Intracohort Aging, and Sociopolitical Attitudes.” American Sociological Review 72(5): 812–30.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
23. ↵
    1. Davis, James A

    . 2013. “A Generation of Attitude Trends Among US Householders as Measured in the NORC General Social Survey 1972–2010.” Social Science Research 42(3): 571–83. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.11.002.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
24. ↵
    1. Dinas, Elias

    . 2013. “Opening ‘Openness to Change’: Political Events and the Increased Sensitivity of Young Adults.” Political Research Quarterly 66(4): 868–82. DOI: 10.1177/1065912913475874.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
25. ↵
    Dovidio, John F., Samuel L. Gaertner, Tamar Saguy, and Eric Hehman. 2011. “Obama’s Potential to Transform the Racial Attitudes of White Americans.” In The Obamas and a (Post) Racial America?, edited by Gregory Parks and Matthew Hughey. New York: Oxford University Press.
26. ↵
    Druckman, James N., and Jeremy Freese. 2016. “Time Sharing Experiments for the Social Sciences, TESS3_202.” TESS. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.tessexperiments.org/.
27. ↵
    Dunsmuir, Lindsay. 2013. “Many Americans Have No Friends of Another Race: Poll.” Reuters, August 8. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-poll-race-idUSBRE97704320130808.
28. ↵
    1. Ellison, Christopher,
    2. Heeju Shin, and
    3. David L. Leal

    . 2011. “The Contact Hypothesis and Attitudes Toward Latinos in the United States.” Social Science Quarterly 92(4): 938–58.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
29. ↵
    Feldmann, Linda. 2014. “Millennials See Themselves as ‘Post-Racial.’ What Does That Mean?” Christian Science Monitor, April 30, 2014. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2014/0430/Millennials-see-themselves-as-post-racial.-What-does-that-mean.
30. ↵
    Forbes, Hugh Donald. 1997. Ethnic Conflict: Commerce, Culture, and the Contact Hypothesis. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
31. 1. Forman, Tyrone A., and
    2. Amanda E. Lewis

    . 2015. “Beyond Prejudice? Young Whites’ Racial Attitudes in Post-Civil Rights America, 1976–2000.” American Behavioral Scientist 59(11): 1394–428.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
32. ↵
    Fraga, Luis, John Garcia, Rodney E. Hero, Michael Jones-Correa, Valerie Martinez-Ebers, and Gary M. Segura. 2012. Latinos in the New Millennium: An Almanac of Opinion, Behavior, and Policy Preferences. New York: Cambridge University Press.
33. ↵
    Fry, Richard. 2015. “Millennials Surpass Gen Xers as the Largest Generation in U.S. Labor Force.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/05/11/millennials-surpass-gen-xers-as-the-largest-generation-in-u-s-labor-force/.
34. ↵
    Ghitza, Yair, and Andrew Gelman. 2014. “The Great Society, Reagan’s Revolution, and Generations of Presidential Voting.” Department of Statistics and Political Science working paper. New York: Columbia University. http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/research/unpublished/cohort_voting_20140605.pdf.
35. ↵
    1. Goldman, Seth K

    . 2012. “Effects of the 2008 Obama Presidential Campaign on White Racial Prejudice.” Public Opinion Quarterly 76(4): 663–87. DOI: 10.1093/poq/nfs056.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
36. ↵
    1. Goren, Matt, and
    2. Victoria Plaut

    . 2012. “Identity Form Matters: White Racial Identity and Attitudes Toward Diversity.” Self and Identity 11(2): 237–54.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
37. ↵
    Harvard Public Opinion Project. 2014. “Survey of Young Americans’ Attitudes Toward Politics and Public Service, 26th edition.” Cambridge, Mass.: Institute of Politics, Harvard University.
38. ↵
    Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2016. Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right. New York: The New Press.
39. ↵
    Hollinger, David A. 1995. Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism. New York: Basic Books.
40. ↵
    Hopkins, Daniel J. 2014. “Partisan Loyalty Begins at Age 18.” Fivethirtyeight, April 22. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/partisan-loyalty-begins-at-age-18/.
41. ↵
    Hutchings, Vincent, Ashley Jardina, Robert Mickey, and Haynes Walton. 2012. “The Politics of Race: How Threat Cues and Group Position Can Activate White Identity.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago (April 12–15).
42. ↵
    1. Jacobson, Gary C

    . 2016. “The Obama Legacy and the Future of Partisan Conflict Demographic Change and Generational Imprinting.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 667(1): 72–91. DOI: 10.1177/0002716216658425.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
43. ↵
    Jardina, Ashley. 2014. “Demise of Dominance: Group Threat and the New Relevance of White Identity for American Politics.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.
44. ↵
    Jones, Robert, Daniel Cox, and Thomas Banchoff. 2012. “A Generation in Transition: Religion, Values, and Politics Among College-Age Millennials.” Washington, D.C.: Public Religion Research Institute. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://publicreligion.org/research/2012/04/millennial-values-survey-2012/.
45. ↵
    1. Kinder, Donald R

    . 2006. “Politics and the Life Cycle.” Science 312(5782): 1905–08.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
46. Kinder, Donald R., and Lynn M. Sanders. 1996. Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
47. ↵
    1. Lowery, Brian,
    2. Miguel Unzueta,
    3. Eric Knowles, and
    4. Phillip Atiba Goff

    . 2006. “Concern for the In-Group and Opposition to Affirmative Action.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90(6): 961–74.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
48. ↵
    Madland, David, and Ruy Teixeira. 2009. “The New Progressive America: The Millennial Generation.” Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress. Accessed January 24, 2018. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/progressive-movement/report/2009/05/13/6133/new-progressive-america-the-millennial-generation/.
49. ↵
    1. Major, Brenda,
    2. Alison Blodorn, and
    3. Gregory Blascovich

    . 2016. “The Threat of Increasing Diversity: Why Many White Americans Support Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, published online October 20, 2016. DOI: 10.1177/1368430216677304.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
50. ↵
    1. Manzano, Sylvia, and
    2. Gabriel Sanchez

    . 2010. “Take One for the Team? The Limits of Shared Ethnicity and Candidate Preferences.” Political Research Quarterly 63(3): 568–80.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
51. ↵
    Marcotte, Amanda. 2013. “Are Millennials Killing Off the Religious Right?” XX Factor (blog), July 22. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2013/07/22/religious_progressives_outnumber_religious_conservatives_ages_18_33_does.html.
52. ↵
    Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Message, and the Norm of Equality. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
53. ↵
    Mutz, Diana C., and Seth K. Goldman. 2010. “The Sage Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination.” Sage chapter Mass Media. London: Sage Publications. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://iscap.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/GoldmanMutzchapter.pdf.
54. ↵
    Norton, Michael I., and Samuel R. Sommers. 2011. “Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 6(3): 215–18.
55. ↵
    1. Nteta, Tatishe, and
    2. Jill Greenlee

    . 2013. “A Change Is Gonna Come: Generational Membership and White Racial Attitudes in the 21st Century.” Political Psychology 34(6): 877–97.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. Osborne, Danny,
    2. David O. Sears, and
    3. Nicholas A. Valentino

    . 2011. “The End of the Solidly Democratic South: The Impressionable-Years Hypothesis.” Political Psychology 32(1): 81–108. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467–9221.2010.00796.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
57. ↵
    1. Outten, H. Robert,
    2. Michael T. Schmitt,
    3. Daniel A. Miller, and
    4. Amber L. Garcia

    . 2012. “Feeling Threatened About the Future: Whites’ Emotional Reactions to Anticipated Ethnic Demographic Changes.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38(1): 14–25.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
58. ↵
    1. Pettigrew, Thomas F., and
    2. Linda R. Tropp

    . 2006. “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90(5): 751–83.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
59. ↵
    1. Pettigrew, Thomas F.,
    2. Linda R. Tropp,
    3. Ulrich Wagner, and
    4. Oliver Christ

    . 2011. “Recent Advances in Intergroup Contact Theory.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35(3): 271–80.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
60. ↵
    Pew Research Center. 2012. “Changing Face of America Helps Assure Obama Victory.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, U.S. Politics and Policy. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.people-press.org/2012/11/07/changing-face-of-america-helps-assure-obama-victory/.
61. Pew Research Center. 2014. “Millennials in Adulthood.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/03/07/millennials-in-adulthood/.
62. ↵
    Pew Research Center. 2015a. “Comparing Millennials to Other Generations.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/03/19/comparing-millennials-to-other-generations/.
63. ↵
    Pew Research Center. 2015b. “The Whys and Hows of Generations Research.” Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.people-press.org/2015/09/03/the-whys-and-hows-of-generations-research/.
64. ↵
    Rampell, Catherine. 2016. “The GOP’s Lost Generation of Millennial Voters.” Washington Post. April 28, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-gops-lost-generation-of-voters/2016/04/28/06f8efe4–0d7d-11e6–8ab8–9ad050f76d7d_story.html.
65. ↵
    1. Sanchez, Gabriel, and
    2. Natalie Masuoka

    . 2010. “Brown-Utility Heuristic? The Presence and Contributing Factors of Latino Linked Fate.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 32(4): 519–31.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
66. ↵
    1. Schildkraut, Deborah J

    . 2013. “Which Birds of a Feather Flock Together? Assessing Attitudes About Descriptive Representation Among Latinos and Asian Americans.” American Politics Research 41(4): 699–729.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
67. ↵
    1. Schildkraut, Deborah J

    . 2017. “White Attitudes about Descriptive Representation in the US: The Roles of Identity, Discrimination, and Linked Fate.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 5(1): 84–106.

    OpenUrl
68. ↵
    Schmitt, Michael T., and Nyla R. Branscombe. 2002. “The Meaning and Consequences of Perceived Discrimination in Disadvantaged and Privileged Social Groups.” In European Review of Social Psychology, edited by Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles Hewstone. Essex: Psychology Press.
69. ↵
    1. Schwadel, Philip, and
    2. Christopher R. H. Garneau

    . 2014. “An Age–Period–Cohort Analysis of Political Tolerance in the United States.” Sociological Quarterly 55(2): 421–52. DOI: 10.1111/tsq.12058.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
70. ↵
    Sears, David O., and Christia Brown. 2013. “Childhood and Adult Political Development.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
71. ↵
    Sides, John, Michael Tesler, and Lynn Vavreck. 2018. Identity Crisis: The 2016 Presidential Campaign and the Battle for the Meaning of America. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
72. ↵
    Simmons-Duffin, Selena. 2014. “Why You Should Start Taking Millennials Seriously: NPR.” NPR Morning Edition, October 6. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.npr.org/2014/10/06/352613333/why-you-should-start-taking-millennials-seriously.
73. Sims, David. 2015. “All Hail ‘The Founders.’” The Atlantic, December 2, 2015. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/12/all-hail-the-founders/418458/.
74. ↵
    1. Stoker, Laura

    . 2014. “Reflections on the Study of Generations in Politics.” The Forum 12(3). DOI: 10.1515/for-2014-5012.

    OpenUrl
75. ↵
    Strauss, Valerie. 2014. “For First Time, Minority Students Expected to Be Majority in U.S. Public Schools This Fall.” Answer Sheet (blog), August 21. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/08/21/for-first-time-minority-students-expected-to-be-majority-in-u-s-public-schools-this-fall/.
76. ↵
    Tajfel, Henri, ed. 1982. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
77. ↵
    Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. 1986. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior.” In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by William Austin and Stephen Worchel. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
78. ↵
    Taylor, Paul. 2014. The Next America: Boomers, Millennials, and the Looming Generational Showdown. New York: PublicAffairs.
79. ↵
    Teixeira, Ruy. 2011. “Millennials: Still Progressive After All These Years.” Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress.
80. Tesler, Michael, and David Sears. 2010. Obama’s Race: The 2008 Election and the Dream of a Post-Racial America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
81. ↵
    Tesler, Michael, and John Sides. 2016. “How Political Science Helps Explain the Rise of Trump: The Role of White Identity and Grievances.” Washington Post, March 3. Accessed June 30, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/03/03/how-political-science-helps-explain-the-rise-of-trump-the-role-of-white-identity-and-grievances/.
82. ↵
    Tierney, John. 2014. “How to Win Millennials: Equality, Climate Change, and Gay Marriage.” The Atlantic, May 17. Accessed January 24, 2018. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/05/everything-you-need-to-know-about-millennials-political-views/371053/.
83. Winograd, Morley, and Michael Hais. 2008. Millennial Makeover: MySpace, YouTube, and the Future of American Politics. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
84. ↵
    Winograd, Morley, and Michael Hais. 2011. Millennial Momentum: How a New Generation Is Remaking America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.