Limited Scopes of Repair: Black Reparations Strategies and the Constraints of Local Redress Policy

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. AP News

   . 2021. “North Carolina City Commits $2.1M for Reparations.” AP News, June 9. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://apnews.com/article/north-carolina-racial-injustice-business-race-and-ethnicity-d9190175bb260ba2882954fd731fbe92.
2. ↵
   1. Baer, Andrew S

   . 2018. “Dignity Restoration and the Chicago Police Torture Reparations Ordinance.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 92(3): 769.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Baer, Andrew S

   . 2020. Beyond the Usual Beating: The Jon Burge Police Torture Scandal and Social Movements for Police Accountability in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
4. ↵
   1. Bilmes, Linda J., and
   2. Cornell William Brooks

   . 2024. “Normalizing Reparations: U.S. Precedent, Norms, and Models for Compensating Harms and Implications for Reparations to Black Americans.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation of the Social Sciences 10(2): 30–68. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.02.

   OpenUrl
5. ↵
   1. Biondi, Martha

   . 2007. “The Rise of the Reparations Movement.” In Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies, edited by Michael T. Martin and Marilyn Yaquinto, 255–70. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/2249/chapter/281920/The-Rise-of-the-Reparations-Movement.
6. ↵
   1. Blazina, Carrie, and
   2. Kiana Cox

   . 2022. “Black and White Americans Are Far Apart in Their Views of Reparations for Slavery.” Short Reads, November 28. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/11/28/black-and-white-americans-are-far-apart-in-their-views-of-reparations-for-slavery.
7. ↵
   1. Breslau, Karen, and
   2. Kelsey Butler

   . 2023. “California Weighs $360,000 in Reparations to Eligible Black Residents. Will Others Follow?” Bloomberg, March 3. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-03/california-weighs-360-000-in-reparations-to-each-black-resident.
8. ↵
   1. Brooks, Roy L

   . 1999. When Sorry Isn’t Enough: The Controversy over Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice. New York: New York University Press.
9. ↵
   1. Cahan, Debbie-Marie Brown,
   2. Richard

   . 2022. “Evanston Reparations Begin: Random Drawing Selects 16 Black ‘Ancestors’ to Receive $25,000 Grants.” Evanston RoundTable, January 14. Accessed February 2, 2024. http://evanstonroundtable.com/2022/01/13/evanston-reparations-begin-random-drawing.
10. ↵
    1. Castro, Gina

    . 2022. “Reparations Committee Cautiously Moves Forward on Tapping Real Estate Transfer Tax Funds.” Evanston RoundTable, November 4. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://evanstonroundtable.com/2022/11/04/reparations-committee-real-estate-tax-affirmative-action/.
11. ↵
    1. Castro, Gina

    . 2023a. “City Plans up to 80 More Grants in Second Round of Reparations.” Evanston RoundTable, March 9. Accessed February 2, 2024. http://evanstonroundtable.com/2023/03/09/evanston-reparations-secound-round-up-to-80-more-ancestors/.
12. ↵
    1. Castro, Gina

    . 2023b. “Reparations Committee Backs Cash Payments for Ancestors.” Evanston RoundTable, March 17. Accessed February 2, 2024. http://evanstonroundtable.com/2023/03/16/reparations-committee-cash-payments-for-ancestors.
13. ↵
    1. Castro, Gina

    . 2023c. “A 7th Ancestor Dies While Waiting for City’s Reparations Process.” Evanston RoundTable, March 10. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://evanstonroundtable.com/2023/03/10/7th-reparations-ancestor-dies-waiting-for-grant-process.
14. ↵
    1. Chicago Police Torture Archive

    . 2021. Chicago: Invisible Institute. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://chicagopolicetorturearchive.com.
15. ↵
    1. City of Evanston

    . 2021. “Council Approves First Allocation of Local Reparations Fund.” March 23. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/Home/Components/News/News/5226/17.
16. ↵
    1. City of Evanston

    . 2023a. “Is Reparations Only for African American/Black Evanston Residents Who Are United States Direct Descendants of Slaves?” Evanston Reparations FAQs. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/government/city-council/reparations.
17. ↵
    1. City of Evanston

    . 2023b. “What Is the Restorative Housing Program?” Restorative Housing FAQs. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/government/city-council/reparations.
18. ↵
    1. Coates, Ta-Nehisi

    . 2014. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic 313(5): 54–71. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/.

    OpenUrl
19. ↵
    1. Cohen, Cathy J

    . 1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
20. ↵
    1. Cornish, Audie,
    2. Jonaki Mehta, and
    3. Lee Hale

    . 2021. “Recent Polling Data Shows Why Nearly 2/3 of Americans Oppose Cash Reparations.” NPR, June 18. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2021/06/18/1008196317/recent-polling-data-shows-why-nearly-2–3-of-americans-oppose-cash-reparations.
21. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen

    . 2020. From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
22. ↵
    1. Darity, William A., Jr.., and
    2. A. Kirsten Mullen

    . 2023. “On the Black Reparations Highway: Avoiding the Detours.” In The Black Reparations Project: A Handbook for Racial Justice, edited by William A. Darity Jr.., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Lucas Hubbard, 200–12. Berkeley: University of California Press.
23. ↵
    1. Deterding, Nicole M., and
    2. Mary C. Waters

    . 2018. “Flexible Coding of In-Depth Interviews: A Twenty-First-Century Approach.” Sociological Methods & Research 50(2):708-739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118799377.

    OpenUrl
24. ↵
    1. Edwards, Kathryn Anne,
    2. Lisa Birdie, and
    3. Jonathan W. Welburn

    . 2024. “What Makes a Reparation Successful? A Discussion to Inform Design of Reparations to Black Americans.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 69–85. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.03.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Evanston City Council

    . 2002. “43-R-02: A Resolution, Slave Reparations.” June 4. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/home/showpublisheddocument/62670/637511529208270000.
26. ↵
    1. Evanston City Council

    . 2019. “126-R-19: A Resolution Establishing a City of Evanston Funding Source Devoted to Local Reparations.” November 14. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/home/showpublisheddocument/92499/638332410560976468.
27. ↵
    1. Fung, Archon

    . 2006. “Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance.” Public Administration Review 66(S1): 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15400–6210.2006.00667.x.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
28. ↵
    1. Han, Hahrie,
    2. Elizabeth McKenna, and
    3. Michelle Oyakawa

    . 2021. Prisms of the People: Power & Organizing in Twenty-First-Century America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29. ↵
    1. Hannah-Jones, Nikole

    . 2021. The 1619 Project: A New Origin Story. New York: One World.
30. ↵
    1. Jayadev, Raj, and
    2. Janet Moore

    . 2022. “Participatory Defense as an Abolitionist Strategy.” In Transforming Criminal Justice, edited by John B. Gould and Pamela R. Metzger, 71–96. New York: New York University Press. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479818839.003.0006.
31. ↵
    1. Jones, Jeffrey M

    . 2022. “Americans Say Government Should Address Slavery Effects.” Gallup, June 16. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://news.gallup0.com/poll/393689/americans-say-government-address-slavery-effects.aspx.
32. ↵
    1. Kaba, Mariame

    . 2021. We Do This ’Til We Free Us: Abolitionist Organizing and Transforming Justice. Chicago: Haymarket Books.
33. ↵
    1. Kitchen, Ronald,
    2. Thai Jones, and
    3. Logan McBride

    . 2018. My Midnight Years: Surviving Jon Burge’s Police Torture Ring and Death Row. Chicago: Lawrence Hill.
34. ↵
    1. Losier, Toussaint

    . 2019. “A Human Right to Reparations: Black People Against Police Torture and the Roots of the 2015 Chicago Reparations Ordinance.” Souls 20(4): 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999949.2018.1607060.

    OpenUrl
35. ↵
    1. Martin, Michael T., and
    2. Marilyn Yaquinto

    . 2007. Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
36. ↵
    1. Martinez, Melissa

    . 2020. “The Myth of the Great Equalizer.” The Daily Northwestern, April 11. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://dailynorthwestern.com/2020/04/11/city/the-myth-of-the-great-equalizer-preliminary-data-show-black-evanston-residents-contract-virus-at-higher-rates.
37. ↵
    1. McAdam, Doug

    . 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
38. ↵
    1. McAdam, Doug

    . 2004. “Revisiting the U.S. Civil Rights Movement: Toward a More Synthetic Understanding of the Origins of Contention.” In Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion, edited by Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper, 201–32. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield.
39. ↵
    1. McCaulley, Esau

    . 2023. “The Kind of Revolution That Martin Luther King Jr. Envisioned.” New York Times, January 15. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/15/opinion/martin-luther-king-woke-reparations.html.
40. ↵
    1. McKay, Tasseli

    . 2022. Stolen Wealth, Hidden Power: The Case for Reparations for Mass Incarceration. Berkeley: University of California Press.
41. ↵
    1. Meadows, Jonah

    . 2019. “Future Weed Revenue Will Fund Evanston’s New Reparations Program.” Patch, November 27. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://patch.com/illinois/evanston/evanston-recreational-cannabis-tax-fund-referendum-program.
42. ↵
    1. Metropolitan Planning Council

    . 2018. “The Cost of Segregation.” Chicago: Metropolitan Planning Council. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.metroplanning.org/costofsegregation/default.aspx.
43. ↵
    1. Meyer, David S

    . 2004. “Protest and Political Opportunities.” Annual Review of Sociology 30(1): 125–45. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110545.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
44. ↵
    1. Mogul, Joey

    . 2016. “The Struggle for Reparations in the Burge Torture Cases: The Grassroots Struggle That Could.” Public Interest Law Reporter 21(3): 209.

    OpenUrl
45. ↵
    1. Mullen, A. Kirsten, and
    2. William A. Darity Jr.

    . 2021. “Evanston, Ill., Approved ‘Reparations.’ Except It Isn’t Reparations.” Washington Post, April 1. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/03/28/evanston-ill-approved-reparations-housing-program-except-it-isnt-reparations.
46. ↵
    1. Newton, Monique, and
    2. Matthew D. Nelsen

    . 2024. “The Politics of Expedience: Evanston, Illinois, and the Fight for Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 114–39. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.06.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Perry, Andre M., and
    2. Rashawn Ray

    . 2021. “Evanston’s Grants to Black Homeowners Aren’t Enough. But They Are Reparations.” Washington Post, April 1. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/evanston-housing-reparations/2021/04/01/4342833e-9243–11eb-9668–89be11273c09_story.html.
48. ↵
    1. Pulley, Aislinn

    . 2019. “Chicago Paves the Way for Reparations for Police Sadism.” American Civil Liberties Union (blog). January 26. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.aclu.org/issues/chicago-paves-way-reparations-police-sadism.
49. ↵
    1. Ralph, Laurence

    . 2019. The Torture Letters: Reckoning with Police Violence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
50. ↵
    1. Ransby, Barbara

    . 2018. Making All Black Lives Matter: Reimagining Freedom in the Twenty-First Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.
51. ↵
    1. Reeves, Marvin,
    2. Mark Clements,
    3. Ronald Kitchen, and
    4. Stanley Howard

    . 2019. Tortured by Blue: The Chicago Police Torture Story. Bloomington, Ind.: Balboa Press.
52. ↵
    1. Reneau, Olivia J

    . 2024. “Justice Delayed: An Analysis of Local Proposals for Black Reparations.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(3): 140–61. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.3.07.

    OpenUrl
53. ↵
    1. Robinson, Morris, Jr.., and
    2. Jenny Thompson

    . 2021. “Evanston Policies and Practices Directly Affecting the African American Community.” Evanston, Ill.: City of Evanston. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.cityofevanston.org/home/showpublisheddocument/67191/637715545144570000.
54. 1. Schlueter, Rachel

    . 2023. “Reparations Recipients Ask City to Use Grant for Rent.” The Daily Northwestern (blog). March 2, 2023. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://dailynorthwestern.com/2023/03/01/city/nothing-is-etched-in-stone-reparations-recipients-ask-city-to-use-money-for-rent-as-deadline-approaches.
55. ↵
    1. Simonson, Jocelyn

    . 2016. “Democratizing Criminal Justice Through Contestation and Resistance.” Northwestern University Law Review 111(6): 1609–25. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://northwesternlawreview.org/issues/democratizing-criminal-justice-through-contestation-and-resistance.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. Strolovitch, Dara Z

    . 2007. Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class, and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
57. ↵
    1. Tarrow, Sidney

    . 1998. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813245.
58. ↵
    1. Taylor, G. Flint

    . 2016. “The Long Path to Reparations for the Survivors of Chicago Police Torture.” Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy 11(3): 330–55. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1136&context=njlsp.

    OpenUrl
59. ↵
    1. Taylor, G. Flint

    . 2019. The Torture Machine: Racism and Police Violence in Chicago. Chicago: Haymarket Books.
60. ↵
    1. Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta

    . 2019. Race for Profit: How Banks and the Real Estate Industry Undermined Black Homeownership. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
61. ↵
    1. Terriquez, Veronica

    . 2015. “Intersectional Mobilization, Social Movement Spillover, and Queer Youth Leadership in the Immigrant Rights Movement.” Social Problems 62(3): 343–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv010.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
62. ↵
    1. United Nations

    . 2005. “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law.” General Assembly Resolution 60/147. New York: Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/basic-principles-and-guidelines-right-remedy-and-reparation.
63. ↵
    1. We Charge Genocide

    . 2014. “We Charge Genocide: Police Violence Against Chicago’s Youth of Color.” Chicago: We Charge Genocide. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://www.chicagopatf.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/police_violence_against_chicagos_youth_of_color.pdf.
64. ↵
    1. Wrigley-Field, Elizabeth

    . 2024. “Stolen Lives: Redress for Slavery’s and Jim Crow’s Ongoing Theft of Lifespan.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 10(2): 88–112. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2024.10.2.04.

    OpenUrl
65. ↵
    1. Younis, Mohamed

    . 2019. “As Redress for Slavery, Americans Oppose Cash Reparations.” Gallup, July 29. Accessed February 2, 2024. https://news.gallup.com/poll/261722/redress-slavery-americans-oppose-cash-reparations.aspx.