Does mentoring matter? A multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals

Abstract

The study of mentoring has generally been conducted within disciplinary silos with a specific type of mentoring relationship as a focus. The purpose of this article is to quantitatively review the three major areas of mentoring research (youth, academic, workplace) to determine the overall effect size associated with mentoring outcomes for protégés. We also explored whether the relationship between mentoring and protégé outcomes varied by the type of mentoring relationship (youth, academic, workplace). Results demonstrate that mentoring is associated with a wide range of favorable behavioral, attitudinal, health-related, relational, motivational, and career outcomes, although the effect size is generally small. Some differences were also found across type of mentoring. Generally, larger effect sizes were detected for academic and workplace mentoring compared to youth mentoring. Implications for future research, theory, and applied practice are provided.

Introduction

Across areas of research, scholars agree that mentoring can be associated with a wide range of positive outcomes for protégés. Mentoring has been discussed as a strategy for positive youth development and as a deterrent of risky youth behavior (DuBois & Karcher, 2005), as a way to improve the academic adjustment, retention, and success of college students (Johnson, 2007), and as a means to facilitate career development among employees (Kram, 1985). Despite the widespread study of mentoring and its prevalence in community, academic and organizational contexts, research has progressed within its own disciplinary silos. As a consequence, there is little cross-disciplinary communication among mentoring scholars. There are also no quantitative reviews of the mentoring literature as a whole, even though the same basic assumption applies to all types of mentoring. That is, when a more experienced or senior individual (the mentor) takes an interest in and encourages a less experienced or disadvantaged individual (the protégé), the protégé will benefit (Jacobi, 1991, Kram, 1985, Rhodes, 2005).

To spark mentoring researchers to think more broadly about the potential role of mentoring in protégés’ lives and to advance mentoring theory, a comprehensive multidisciplinary meta-analysis was conducted. Our primary objective was to answer the question, “Looking across different areas of mentoring scholarship, does mentoring matter, and if so, how much?” This is an important question because the popular press makes strong claims about the importance of mentoring and both public and private funds are used to support many different types of mentoring initiatives (Rhodes, 2005). We were also interested in documenting whether or not there are differences in how much mentoring matters across protégé outcomes. For example, does mentoring have a stronger relationship with protégé attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward school, satisfaction with college, job satisfaction), protégé behaviors (e.g., grades in school, deviant behavior, job performance), or protégé motivational variables (e.g., aspiration level, time spent on educational pursuits, career commitment)? This information has implications for theory development and refinement. It may also alert practitioners as to the protégé outcomes that may be most likely affected by mentoring when designing formal programs. Finally, we were interested in examining whether mentoring outcomes vary by the type of relationship (youth mentoring, workplace mentoring, academic mentoring). This will provide a more fine-grained assessment of the conditions under which mentoring matters the most.

Because individuals may experience mentoring at various life stages, it is not surprising that there are three distinct streams of mentoring scholarship: youth mentoring, academic mentoring, and workplace mentoring. Youth mentoring involves a relationship between a caring, supportive adult and a child or adolescent (Rhodes, 2002). Youth mentoring assumes that supportive relationships with adults are important for personal, emotional, cognitive, and psychological growth (Ainsworth, 1989, Rhodes, 2002). Academic mentoring typifies the apprentice model of education where a faculty member imparts knowledge, provides support, and offers guidance to a student protégé on academic (e.g., classroom performance) as well as non-academic (e.g., personal problems, identity issues) issues (Jacobi, 1991). This type of mentoring may facilitate psychological adjustment and foster a sense of professional identity (Austin, 2002). Finally, workplace mentoring occurs in an organizational setting and the purpose is the personal and professional growth of the protégé (Kram, 1985). The mentor may be a supervisor, someone else within the organization but outside the protégé’s chain of command, or an individual in another organization (Eby, 1997).

Several narrative reviews of the youth, academic, and workplace mentoring literature exist. Some narrative reviews summarize research findings associated with youth, academic or workplace mentoring in a particular area, such as diversity (e.g., Ragins, 2002), formal mentoring relationships (e.g., Miller, 2007), or naturally occurring mentoring relationships (e.g., Mullen, 2007, Zimmerman et al., 2005). Other reviews focus on a specific type of mentoring (e.g., academic, workplace) more broadly (e.g., Jacobi, 1991, Wanberg et al., 2003). Several quantitative reviews also exist. This includes quantitative reviews of formal youth mentoring (DuBois, Holloway, Valentine, & Cooper, 2002), academic mentoring (Dorsey and Baker, 2004, Sambunjak et al., 2006), and workplace mentoring (Allen et al., 2004, Underhill, 2006). Collectively these represent important efforts to synthesize the literature. However, there are no reviews that incorporate diverse areas of mentoring scholarship or compare mentoring outcomes across youth, academic and workplace mentoring. The present study addresses this issue.

We expect a wide range of outcomes to be related to mentoring. This includes behavioral, attitudinal, health-related, relational, motivational, and career outcomes.

Behavioral outcomes. Mentoring is often discussed as a means to increase desirable behavior (e.g., academic performance, job performance) and decrease undesirable behavior (e.g., school drop-out, substance use). In fact, formal mentoring programs for youth and college students often target “at risk” individuals (cf. Campbell, 2007, Rhodes, 1994). The hope is that mentoring will deter negative outcomes such as drug use, teen pregnancy, college drop-out, and academic failure while simultaneously encouraging alternative positive behaviors. Another way that protégé behavior may be affected is through instrumental assistance provided by mentors (e.g., helping to publish articles, complete homework, successfully finish work tasks) (Cohen & Willis, 1985). This leads us to propose:

Hypothesis 1

Mentoring is associated with positive behavioral outcomes.

Attitudinal outcomes. Mentoring may also have a positive effect on protégé attitudes. For instance, it is presumed that protégés will develop positive attitudes toward the activity that they engage in with their mentors. This might include activities associated with school (Blinn-Pike, 2007, Tennenbaum et al., 2001), graduate training (Johnson, Koch, Fallow, & Huwe, 2000), or job assignments (Chao, Walz, & Gardner, 1992). Having a mentor may also foster psychological attachment to the context in which the relationship is embedded, such as one’s school, university, or organization (e.g., Payne & Huffman, 2005). Thus, we expect:

Hypothesis 2

Mentoring is associated with positive attitudinal outcomes.

Health-related outcomes. Another facet of the mentoring relationship involves the provision of emotional and other forms of health-related support to the protégé. A mentor may listen and offer advice during times of stress or provide counseling on personal or job-related issues (Kram, 1985). Mentors can also enhance overall well-being by challenging protégés’ negative self views (Rhodes, 2002, Rhodes, 2005) which in turn may enhance protégé self-confidence or self-esteem (Johnson, 2007). Furthermore, mentors may be able to promote protégé physical health by engaging in activities such as exercise with the protégé or by facilitating protégé access to health services (DuBois & Silverthorn, 2005). As such we propose:

Hypothesis 3

Mentoring is associated with positive health-related outcomes.

Relational outcomes. Mentoring also may enhance interpersonal relationships with parents, siblings, and peers (Rhodes, 2002, Rhodes, 2005). For example, mentors may help protégés figure out appropriate strategies to deal with interpersonal problems at work, home, or school. Moreover, the experience of a trusting, close relationship with a mentor may lead the protégé to develop positive expectations about interpersonal relationships with others (Rhodes, Grossman, & Rensch, 2000) which in turn may promote positive relationships. This leads us to propose:

Hypothesis 4

Mentoring is associated with positive relational outcomes.

Motivational outcomes. Protégé motivation and involvement may also be influenced by mentoring. Role modeling can expose protégés to educational and social opportunities, which may open their eyes to different possibilities and motivate them to seek out new experiences (Spencer, 2007). Motivation also may be enhanced by helping protégés set achievable goals and realize personally relevant outcomes (Ramaswami & Dreher, 2007). Moreover, mentors may help protégés stay focused on tasks and steer them away from superfluous activities (Bearman, Blake-Beard, Hunt, & Crosby, 2007). Based on this, we propose:

Hypothesis 5

Mentoring is associated with positive motivational outcomes.

Career outcomes. Finally, mentoring relationship may promote career success. Mentors can impart specific knowledge and expertise which contributes to protégé learning and skill development (Kram, 1985, Johnson, 2007, Mullen, 2007). Mentors can also facilitate professional networking by introducing protégés to influential individuals within academic or organizational contexts (Kram, 1985, Tennenbaum et al., 2001). These important career contacts can in turn lead to career success in terms of salary, promotions, and job offers. With youth or college students, mentors also may introduce protégés to different possible careers and help them to explore those, thus enhancing their development in this area. Thus, we propose:

Hypothesis 6

Mentoring is associated with positive career outcomes.

Although similar in some respects, youth, academic, and workplace mentoring also differ. One salient difference is the developmental stage of the protégé. Developmental theories suggest that people progress through relatively orderly periods of transition marked by unique challenges (Erikson, 1963, Levinson et al., 1978). These developmental transitions represent critical turning points and if not navigated successfully there are psychological and social consequences (Erikson, 1963). From middle childhood to adolescence the primary developmental issues involve learning how to cultivate healthy peer relationships, master academic challenges, and develop a sense of personal responsibility (Erikson, 1963, Spencer, 2007). In early adulthood the transitions revolve around psychological and physical separation from one’s parents, learning to develop close emotional bonds with non-family members, and identity development (Erikson, 1963, Levinson et al., 1978). By the time one enters the workforce, the transition generally focuses on developing a stable occupational self-image and finding a niche for oneself in society (Levinson et al., 1978).

Mentoring at different developmental stages also tends to serve different functions or purposes. Youth mentoring is often aimed at reducing risky behavior or improving social and academic functioning (DuBois & Karcher, 2005). Academic mentoring tends to target student retention, academic performance, and adjustment to college life (Jacobi, 1991). Finally, workplace mentoring aims to enhance employees’ personal and career development (Kram, 1985). Based on the unique developmental transitions individuals face across the lifespan and the varying purposes of different types of mentoring we propose the following research question:

Are there differences in protégé outcomes when comparing youth, academic, and workplace mentoring?