The effect of means-tested income support for the elderly on pre-retirement saving: evidence from the SSI program in the U.S.
Introduction
The elderly are one of the exceptional groups in American society with access to a significant cash safety net, a means-tested program called Supplemental Security Income (SSI). Although the potential disincentives posed by means-tested income-support programs for other populations (such as AFDC) have received considerable attention from both researchers and politicians, the potential disincentives posed by such programs for the elderly have largely escaped attention. In particular, the SSI program may create disincentives for saving as individuals approach the age of eligibility, because of both asset and income tests. Given that public policy often attempts to ensure that elderly individuals accumulate sufficient wealth to support their retirement – for example, Social Security and ERISA – it would be ironic if we also have policies in place that discourage saving among the more disadvantaged elderly population that is potentially eligible for SSI. However, there is no empirical evidence on whether SSI actually leads to discernible disincentives to save.1
In this paper, we examine the effects of SSI for the aged on saving.2 The federal government sets eligibility criteria and benefit levels for the federal component of the program, specifying maximum benefit levels for couples and individuals that are reduced by income from other sources, including Social Security benefits and Disability Insurance. (The first $20 of non-means-tested transfer income, the first $65 of earned income, plus one half of remaining earnings, are disregarded in reducing SSI benefits.) Thus, other sources of income influence both eligibility for and potential payments under SSI. Financial resources also affect eligibility. For example, as of 1985 individuals with over $1600 in countable assets, and couples with over $2400 in countable assets, were ineligible.3 In September 1984 (corresponding roughly to the time period covered by our data), there were 1.55 million persons receiving SSI payments who were eligible because of age (1995 Green Book).4
In addition to the federal component of the program, states may supplement federal SSI benefits. For example, in January 1985 the maximum federal benefit was $325 for an individual, and $488 for a couple. The highest state benefit was in California, which resulted in a maximum combined benefit of $504 for an individual, and $936 for a couple.5 In December 1985 the average federal benefit paid was $146 for individuals, and $232 for couples, and the average state supplements were $97 and $257, respectively (Kahn, 1987), with 39% of SSI recipients receiving state supplements.
We exploit the state-level variation in SSI benefits to estimate the effects of SSI on saving. We use data mainly on male householders from the 1984 panel of the Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), covering individuals in the 1983–1986 period, to estimate the effects of state SSI supplements via a difference-in-difference approach that controls for variation in saving across states and across different types of individuals. We find evidence that high SSI benefits reduce saving among households with heads approaching the age of SSI eligibility, and who are likely to end up participating in the program.6 This evidence is robust to many (but not all) of the changes in the sample, specification, or definition of variables that we consider. Overall, then, we view the evidence as providing a relatively consistent picture of dissaving effects induced by the SSI program.
Section snippets
The data
We use a sample drawn from the SIPP, which when weighted serves as a nationally-representative sample of households. The SIPP attempts to gather detailed and reliable data on income and welfare program use that are impractical to collect in the larger Current Population Surveys. Households are interviewed every 4 months (each 4 month interval is referred to as a “wave”) for 2–3 years. Most questions are asked retrospectively about the previous 4 months. However, questions about wealth holdings
SSI participation
The descriptive statistics in columns (2) and (3) of Table 1 provide demographic and other information for men aged 65 and over, classified by whether or not they are actual SSI participants. Participants are much more likely to have less than a high school education, and virtually guaranteed not to be college graduates. They are also more likely to be black, and never married, divorced, widowed, or separated. Finally, not surprisingly, SSI participants are more likely to ever have been
Conclusion
The goal of this paper is to draw inferences about the effect of SSI for the aged on pre-retirement saving. SSI for the aged effectively operates as a means-tested retirement income program, in that eligibility depends on financial resources in the form of assets and income. As a consequence, more generous SSI benefits may induce less saving or more dissaving at ages near retirement. We use state-level variation in generosity of supplemental SSI payments to identify the effects of SSI, studying
Acknowledgements
Neumark was a Visiting Scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland (FRBC), and Powers was an Economist at the FRBC, during the period when this research was initiated. Neumark gratefully acknowledges support from NIA grant K01-AG00589. We are grateful to seminar participants at the Cleveland Fed and Michigan State University, and to Alan Gustman, Paul Menchik, James Poterba, Mark Schweitzer, and anonymous referees for helpful comments, and to Kristin Roberts for research assistance.
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