Article Figures & Data
Tables
Weighted Descriptive Statistics on Key Measures
| Full Sample (N = 1,600) | By Family Structure | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single Parent | Two Parent | ||||
| Nuclear (N = 200; 12.50 Percent) | Extended (N = 180; 11.25 Percent) | Nuclear (N = 800; 50.00 Percent) | Extended (N = 420; 26.25 Percent) | ||
| Mean (Standard Deviation) / (Percent) | |||||
| NTH childcare utilization | |||||
| Any care | 43.04 | 75.29 | 77.94 | 30.04 | 39.54 |
| Paid care | 14.99 | 36.66 | 24.81 | 9.32 | 11.53 |
| Among NTH care users | |||||
| Center-based care | 16.64 | 27.16 | 12.10 | 11.64 | 17.46 |
| Paid family childcare | 18.99 | 21.26 | 21.93 | 19.17 | 14.15 |
| Unpaid family childcare | 48.04 | 45.69 | 67.91 | 38.33 | 50.55 |
| Childcare subsidy policy characteristics | |||||
| Generous states | 84.96 | 83.16 | 88.92 | 84.80 | 84.71 |
| Race and ethnicity | |||||
| White | 40.31 | 37.49 | 25.29 | 48.50 | 30.56 |
| Black | 16.38 | 26.51 | 28.44 | 10.74 | 18.11 |
| Latino/a | 32.20 | 21.67 | 31.53 | 31.02 | 40.48 |
| Other | 11.11 | 14.33 | 14.75 | 9.73 | 10.85 |
| Immigration status | 26.54 | 8.93 | 18.25 | 25.19 | 41.89 |
| Parent employment characteristics | |||||
| Nontraditional work hours when all parents work | 12.24 (0.24) | 35.38 (0.30) | 42.37 (0.29) | 3.53 (0.13) | 6.45 (0.18) |
| Levels of schedule predictability at work | |||||
| Little predictability | 15.30 | 40.13 | 38.93 | 8.80 | 6.55 |
| Some predictability | 84.70 | 59.87 | 61.07 | 91.20 | 93.45 |
| Levels of remote work availability | |||||
| Not available at all | 49.35 | 92.74 | 95.02 | 35.22 | 38.12 |
| Some remote work available | 50.65 | 7.26 | 4.98 | 64.78 | 61.88 |
[i] Source: Authors’ calculations using the 2019 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) data.
[ii] Note: Sampling weights are applied. Unweighted cell sizes are rounded to the nearest 20 according to the NSECE restricted-use data reporting policy. Descriptive statistics for other covariates are in the online appendix table A.1.
Logistic Regression Results on the Use of Any NTH Childcare and Paid NTH Childcare
| Odds Ratio (Robust Standard Error) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Any NTH Care | Paid NTH Care | |||||||
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
| Single parenthood | 7.79*** (1.19) | 2.63*** (0.49) | 2.62*** (0.49) | 2.12* (0.68) | 3.99*** (0.68) | 2.83*** (0.65) | 2.81*** (0.65) | 3.57*** (1.32) |
| Extended families | 1.39* (0.21) | 1.16 (0.19) | 1.16 (0.19) | 0.96 (0.26) | 0.63* (0.13) | 0.59* (0.12) | 0.57** (0.12) | 0.43* (0.17) |
| Immigration status | 0.78 (0.12) | 0.79 (0.12) | 0.80 (0.13) | 0.80 (0.13) | 1.09 (0.22) | 1.08 (0.22) | 1.03 (0.21) | 0.96 (0.19) |
| Black | 1.47* (0.27) | 1.17 (0.23) | 1.34 (0.28) | 0.95 (0.26) | 1.39 (0.32) | 1.20 (0.30) | 1.40 (0.36) | 1.75 (0.61) |
| Latino/a | 0.97 (0.15) | 0.86 (0.15) | 0.96 (0.17) | 0.91 (0.19) | 1.12 (0.24) | 1.04 (0.23) | 1.13 (0.26) | 1.28 (0.38) |
| Other | 0.76 (0.16) | 0.66 (0.15) | 0.71 (0.17) | 0.60 (0.18) | 0.89 (0.24) | 0.83 (0.23) | 0.91 (0.26) | 0.50 (0.23) |
| Some work schedule predictability | 0.95 (0.17) | 0.98 (0.18) | 0.99 (0.18) | 1.43 (0.29) | 1.46 (0.30) | 1.59* (0.34) | ||
| Some remote work availability | 0.30*** (0.04) | 0.30*** (0.04) | 0.30*** (0.04) | 0.21*** (0.05) | 0.22*** (0.05) | 0.22*** (0.05) | ||
| Single × Black | 1.17 (0.55) | 0.32* (0.15) | ||||||
| Single × Latino/a | 1.45 (0.57) | 1.09 (0.45) | ||||||
| Single × Other | 1.56 (0.88) | 1.38 (0.79) | ||||||
| Extended families × Black | 2.28* (0.96) | 2.28 (1.15) | ||||||
| Extended families × Latino/a | 1.05 (0.34) | 0.83 (0.38) | ||||||
| Extended families × Other | 1.29 (0.65) | 3.19 (1.96) | ||||||
| N | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 | 1,600 |
| Controls | ||||||||
| Child and family characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
| Parents’ employment characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
| Community characteristics | X | X | X | X | ||||
[i] Source: Authors’ calculations using the 2019 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) data.
[ii] Note: Robust standard errors were applied in all models. Unweighted cell sizes are rounded to the nearest 20 according to the NSECE restricted-use data reporting policy. Child and family characteristics include child age in months, child gender, parental age, maternal educational levels, the presence of nearby relatives who can provide childcare, the presence of two or more children under age five in the household, the presence of at least one school-age child, the presence of at least one teenage child, and urbanicity. Parents’ employment characteristics include the proportions of nontraditional hours when all parents work. Community characteristics include community poverty ratio, state minimum wage, state unemployment rates, state Head Start funding per child, and state pre-K spending per child.
[iii] *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Logistic Regression Results on Each Type of NTH Childcare
| Type of NTH Care | Odds Ratio (Robust Standard Error) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Center-Based Care | Paid Family Childcare | Unpaid Family Childcare | ||||||||||
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
| Single parenthood | 1.33 (0.35) | 2.80** (0.95) | 2.80** (0.96) | 8.76*** (4.39) | 1.00 (0.21) | 0.99 (0.25) | 0.95 (0.25) | 1.39 (0.68) | 2.01*** (0.37) | 1.39 (0.31) | 1.38 (0.31) | 1.38 (0.51) |
| Extended families | 0.49* (0.16) | 0.53 (0.18) | 0.57 (0.20) | 0.88 (0.51) | 0.58* (0.15) | 0.55* (0.15) | 0.53* (0.14) | 0.69 (0.35) | 3.33*** (0.73) | 3.10*** (0.70) | 3.04*** (0.70) | 3.38** (1.29) |
| Immigration status | 0.99 (0.32) | 0.95 (0.33) | 1.00 (0.36) | 0.84 (0.29) | 1.57 (0.38) | 1.46 (0.35) | 1.42 (0.35) | 1.34 (0.33) | 0.95 (0.21) | 0.92 (0.21) | 0.92 (0.21) | 1.00 (0.23) |
| Black | 0.85 (0.30) | 0.86 (0.30) | 0.70 (0.26) | 1.91 (1.08) | 1.67 (0.52) | 1.57 (0.50) | 1.73 (0.59) | 3.67** (1.81) | 0.98 (0.24) | 0.93 (0.24) | 0.98 (0.27) | 0.93 (0.43) |
| Latino/a | 0.47* (0.17) | 0.47 (0.18) | 0.51 (0.21) | 1.78 (0.97) | 1.78 (0.53) | 1.78 (0.52) | 1.95* (0.61) | 2.53* (1.09) | 0.72 (0.17) | 0.70 (0.17) | 0.67 (0.17) | 0.65 (0.23) |
| Other | 1.50 (0.60) | 1.53 (0.60) | 1.51 (0.64) | 2.34 (1.54) | 0.92 (0.39) | 0.90 (0.38) | 1.01 (0.44) | 1.07 (0.80) | 1.25 (0.40) | 1.29 (0.41) | 1.29 (0.43) | 1.85 (0.91) |
| Some work schedule predictability | 2.17* (0.75) | 2.33* (0.84) | 2.42* (0.90) | 1.47 (0.37) | 1.50 (0.38) | 1.56 (0.39) | 0.91 (0.19) | 0.90 (0.19) | 0.86 (0.19) | |||
| Some remote work availability | 0.64 (0.20) | 0.56 (0.18) | 0.54 (0.17) | 0.51* (0.17) | 0.47* (0.16) | 0.47* (0.16) | 0.96 (0.23) | 0.97 (0.23) | 0.97 (0.23) | |||
| Single × Black | 0.15** (0.10) | 0.28* (0.17) | 1.74 (0.90) | |||||||||
| Single × Latino/a | 0.18* (0.13) | 0.91 (0.48) | 0.73 (0.32) | |||||||||
| Single × Other | 0.35 (0.29) | 0.58 (0.48) | 0.93 (0.57) | |||||||||
| Extended × Black | 0.65 (0.46) | 0.69 (0.44) | 0.61 (0.32) | |||||||||
| Extended × Latino/a | 0.27 (0.20) | 0.59 (0.33) | 1.29 (0.57) | |||||||||
| Extended × Other | 1.00 (0.85) | 1.42 (1.23) | 0.45 (0.29) | |||||||||
| N | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 |
| Controls | ||||||||||||
| Child and family characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
| Parents’ employment characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Community characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||
[i] Source: Authors’ calculations using the 2019 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) data.
[ii] Note: Robust standard errors were applied in the logistic regression models. Unweighted cell sizes are rounded to the nearest 20 according to the NSECE restricted-use data reporting policy. Child and family characteristics include child age in months, child gender, parental age, maternal educational levels, the presence of nearby relatives who can provide childcare, the presence of two or more children under age five in the household, the presence of at least one school-age child, the presence of at least one teenage child, and urbanicity. Parents’ employment characteristics include the proportions of nontraditional hours when all parents work. Community characteristics include community poverty ratio, state minimum wage, state unemployment rates, state Head Start funding per child, and state pre-K spending per child.
[iii] *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
Childcare Subsidy Generosity: Logistic Regression Results on Paid NTH Childcare and Each Type of NTH Childcare
| Odds Ratio (Robust Standard Error) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paid NTH Care | Center-Based Care | Paid Family Childcare | Unpaid Family Childcare | |||||
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
| Single parenthood | 2.81*** (0.65) | 2.35* (0.92) | 2.81** (0.97) | 2.33 (1.37) | 0.95 (0.25) | 0.36* (0.18) | 1.40 (0.31) | 2.03 (0.93) |
| Extended families | 0.58** (0.12) | 0.32** (0.13) | 0.60 (0.21) | 0.37 (0.24) | 0.53* (0.15) | 0.39 (0.23) | 2.98*** (0.68) | 4.59** (2.21) |
| Immigration status | 1.04 (0.21) | 1.04 (0.21) | 1.05 (0.38) | 1.06 (0.39) | 1.43 (0.35) | 1.43 (0.35) | 0.91 (0.21) | 0.89 (0.20) |
| Black | 1.39 (0.36) | 1.40 (0.36) | 0.69 (0.26) | 0.69 (0.25) | 1.73 (0.59) | 1.78 (0.61) | 1.00 (0.27) | 0.99 (0.27) |
| Latino/a | 1.13 (0.26) | 1.13 (0.26) | 0.51 (0.21) | 0.50 (0.20) | 1.95* (0.61) | 1.93* (0.61) | 0.69 (0.18) | 0.69 (0.18) |
| Other | 0.89 (0.26) | 0.92 (0.26) | 1.47 (0.62) | 1.48 (0.62) | 1.01 (0.44) | 1.07 (0.48) | 1.33 (0.44) | 1.31 (0.44) |
| Subsidy generosity | 0.85 (0.17) | 0.63 (0.17) | 0.66 (0.20) | 0.50 (0.21) | 0.94 (0.24) | 0.49 (0.19) | 1.26 (0.29) | 1.89 (0.76) |
| Some work schedule predictability | 1.46 (0.30) | 1.45 (0.30) | 2.31* (0.83) | 2.27* (0.83) | 1.49 (0.38) | 1.44 (0.37) | 0.91 (0.19) | 0.93 (0.20) |
| Some remote work availability | 0.22*** (0.05) | 0.22*** (0.05) | 0.56 (0.181) | 0.58 (0.19) | 0.48* (0.16) | 0.49* (0.17) | 0.96 (0.23) | 0.94 (0.23) |
| Subsidy generosity × Single parenthood | 1.25 (0.50) | 1.26 (0.75) | 3.21* (1.69) | 0.64 (0.31) | ||||
| Subsidy generosity × Extended families | 2.03 (0.89) | 1.78 (1.18) | 1.45 (0.87) | 0.60 (0.29) | ||||
| N | 1,600 | 1,600 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 | 660 |
| Controls | ||||||||
| Child and family characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
| Parents’ employment characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
| Community characteristics | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
[i] Source: Authors’ calculations using the 2019 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) data.
[ii] Note: Robust standard errors were applied in the logistic regression models. Unweighted cell sizes are rounded to the nearest 20 according to the NSECE restricted-use data reporting policy. Child and family characteristics include child age in months, child gender, parental age, maternal educational levels, the presence of nearby relatives who can provide childcare, the presence of two or more children under age five in the household, the presence of at least one school-age child, the presence of at least one teenage child, and urbanicity. Parents’ employment characteristics include the proportions of nontraditional hours when all parents work. Community characteristics include community poverty ratio, state minimum wage, state unemployment rates, state Head Start funding per child, and state pre-K spending per child.
[iii] *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
