Are State Paid Family and Medical Leave Programs a Safety Net for Working Single Mothers?

REFERENCES

1. ↵
   1. A Better Balance

   . n.d. “Interactive Overview of Paid Family and Medical Leave Laws in the United States.” Accessed May 13, 2024. https://www.abetterbalance.org/family-leave-laws/.
2. ↵
   1. Aizer, Anna,
   2. Hilary Hoynes, and
   3. Adriana Lleras-Muney

   . 2022. “Children and the US Social Safety Net: Balancing Disincentives for Adults and Benefits for Children.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 36(2): 149–74. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.36.2.149.

   OpenUrlPubMed
3. ↵
   1. Ananat, Elizabeth O., and
   2. Anna Gassman-Pines

   . 2020. “Work Schedule Unpredictability: Daily Occurrence and Effects on Working Parents’ Well-Being.” Journal of Marriage and Family 83(1): 10–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12696.

   OpenUrl
4. ↵
   1. Ananat, Elizabeth O.,
   2. Anna Gassman-Pines, and
   3. Yulya Truskinovsky

   . 2021. “Increasing Instability and Uncertainty Among American Workers: Implications for Inequality and Potential Policy Solutions.” In Who Gets What? The New Politics of Insecurity, edited by Frances McCall Rosenbluth and Margaret Weir. Cambridge University Press.
5. ↵
   1. Appelbaum, Eileen, and
   2. Ruth Milkman

   . 2011. Leaves That Pay: Employer and Worker Experiences with Paid Family Leave in California. Center for Economic and Policy Research. http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/paid-family-leave-1-2011.pdf.
6. ↵
   1. Bartel, Ann,
   2. Soohyun Kim,
   3. Jaehyun Nam,
   4. Maya Rossin-Slater,
   5. Christopher J. Ruhm, and
   6. Jane Waldfogel

   . 2019, January. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Access to and Use of Paid Family and Medical Leave: Evidence from Four Nationally Representative Datasets.” Monthly Labor Review. https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2019.2.
7. ↵
   1. Baum , II, Charles L., and
   2. Christopher J. Ruhm

   . 2016. “The Effects of Paid Family Leave in California on Labor Market Outcomes.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 35(2): 333–56. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43867293.

   OpenUrlCrossRef
8. ↵
   1. Brown, Scott,
   2. Jane Herr,
   3. Radha Roy, and
   4. Jacob Alex Klerman

   . 2020. “Employee and Worksite Perspectives of the Family and Medical Leave Act: Results from the 2018 Surveys.” Abt Associates. Accessed May 16, 2024. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasp/.
9. ↵
   1. Bruch, S.,
   2. Meyers, M., and
   3. Gornick, J.

   2018. “The Consequences of Decentralization: Inequality in Safety Net Provision in the Post-Welfare Reform Era.” Social Service Review 92(1): 3–35.

   OpenUrl
10. ↵
    1. Bullinger, Lindsey R

    . 2019. “The Effect of Paid Family Leave on Infant and Parental Health in the United States.” Journal of Health Economics 66: 101–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.05.006.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
11. ↵
    1. Christopher, Karen,
    2. Paula England,
    3. Timothy M. Smeeding, and
    4. Katherin Ross Phillips

    . 2002. “The Gender Gap in Poverty in Modern Nations: Single Motherhood, the Market, and the State.” Sociological Perspectives 45(3): 219–42. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2002.45.3.219.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. Clinton, William J

    . 1999, May 23. “Remarks by the President in Commencement Address to Grambling State University Graduates. The White House. https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/textonly/WH/New/html/19990523.html.
13. ↵
    1. Congressional Research Service

    . 2018. “Welfare Reform: Work Status of Single Mothers, in Brief.” R45112. Congressional Research Service. Accessed September 7, 2024. https://crsreports.congress.gov.
14. ↵
    1. Cruse, Lindsey Reichlin,
    2. Jessica Milli, and
    3. Barbara Gault

    . 2018. “Single Mothers with College Degrees Much Less Likely to Live in Poverty.” Quick Figures Q072. July. Institute for Women’s Policy Research. https://iwpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Q072_Single-Mothers-College-Degrees-Poverty-1.pdf.
15. ↵
    1. Damaske, Sarah,
    2. Jenifer L. Bratter, and
    3. Adrianne Frech

    . 2017. “Single Mother Families and Employment, Race, and Poverty in Changing Economic Times.” Social Science Research 62: 120–33. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssresearch.2016.08.008.

    OpenUrlPubMed
16. ↵
    1. Dube, Arindrajit, and
    2. Ethan Kaplan

    . 2002. Paid Family Leave in California: An Analysis of Costs and Benefits. June 19. Institute for Research on Labor and Employment. https://irle.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2002/06/Paid-Family-Leave-in-California.pdf.
17. ↵
    1. Ellis, Emily, and
    2. Marci Ybarra

    . 2024. “The Intersection of Paid Family Leave and Safety Net Generosity for Low-Income Families.” Journal of Policy Practice and Research 5: 153–75.

    OpenUrl
18. ↵
    1. Ellwood, David T

    . 1989. Poor Support: Poverty in the American Family. Basic Books.
19. ↵
    1. Franco, Celinda

    . 2004. “Unemployment Compensation: Benefits While on Leave for the Birth or Adoption of a Child.” Congressional Research Service. Accessed May 19, 2024. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20040630_RS20687_24da930dad211a93dde3da26fd45de2cf64514dd.pdf.
20. ↵
    1. Goodman, Julia M.,
    2. Holly Elser, and
    3. William H. Dow

    . 2020. “Among Low-Income Women In San Francisco, Low Awareness of Paid Parental Leave Benefits Inhibits Take-Up.” Health Affairs 39(7): 1157–65. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2020.00157.

    OpenUrlPubMed
21. ↵
    1. Goodman, Julia M.,
    2. Dawn M. Richardson, and
    3. William H. Dow

    . 2022. “Racial and Ethnic Inequities in Paid Family and Medical Leave: United States, 2011 and 2017–2018.” American Journal of Public Health 112(7): 1050–58. https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2022.306825.

    OpenUrlPubMed
22. ↵
    1. Gornick, Janet C., and
    2. Marcia K. Meyers

    . 2003. Families That Work: Policies for Reconciling Parenthood and Employment. Russell Sage Foundation.
23. ↵
    1. Gornick, Janet C., and
    2. Marcia K. Meyers

    . 2008. “Creating Gender Egalitarian Societies: An Agenda for Reform.” Politics & Society 36(3): 313–49. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032329208320562.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
24. ↵
    1. Han, Wen-Jui,
    2. Christopher Ruhm, and
    3. Jane Waldfogel

    . 2009. “Parental Leave Policies and Parents’ Employment and Leave-Taking.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 28(1): 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20398.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
25. ↵
    1. Herd, Pamela, and
    2. Donald Moynihan

    . 2018. Administrative Burden: Policymaking by Other Means. Russell Sage Foundation.
26. ↵
    1. Herr, Jane,
    2. Radha Roy, and
    3. Jacob Alex Klerman

    . 2020. “Gender Differences in Needing and Taking Leave.” Abt Associates. https://www.dol.gov/.
27. ↵
    1. Hill, Heather D

    . 2012. “Welfare as Maternity Leave? Exemptions from Welfare Work Requirements and Maternal Employment.” Social Service Review 86(1): 37–67.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
28. ↵
    1. Houser, Linda, and
    2. Thomas P. Vartanian

    . 2012. “Pay Matters: The Positive Economic Impacts of Paid Family Leave for Families, Businesses and the Public.” January. Rutgers Center for Women and Work. https://smlr.rutgers.edu/sites/smlr/files/Documents/Centers/CWW/Publications/CWW%20Paid%20Leave%20Brief%20Jan%202012.pdf.
29. ↵
    1. International Labour Organization

    . n.d. “International Labour Organization Website.” Accessed September 8, 2024. https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11200:0::NO:11200:P11200_COUNTRY_ID:102871.
30. ↵
    1. Jang-Trettien, Christine, and
    2. Daniel Bolger

    . 2024. “Racialized Administrative Burden in Disability Assistance Programs in Two Rural Counties.” Social Service Review 98(3).
31. ↵
    1. Joshi, Pamela K.,
    2. Kimberly Geronimo,
    3. Bethany Romano, et al

    . 2014. “Integrating Racial/Ethnic Equity into Policy Assessments to Improve Child Health.” Health Affairs 33(12): 2222–29. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2014.1169.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
32. ↵
    1. Jou, Judy,
    2. Elizabeth Wong,
    3. Daniel Franken,
    4. Amy Raub, and
    5. Jody Heymann

    . 2020. “Paid Parental Leave Policies for Single-Parent Households: An Examination of Legislative Approaches in 34 OECD Countries.” Community, Work & Family 23(2): 184–200. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13668803.2018.1517083.

    OpenUrl
33. ↵
    1. Kang, Ji Young,
    2. Areum Lee,
    3. Eunsun Kwon, and
    4. Sojung Park

    . 2022. “The Effects of California Paid Family Leave on Labor Force Participation Among Low-Income Mothers One Year after Childbirth.” Journal of Social Policy 51(4): 707–27. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0047279421000246.

    OpenUrl
34. ↵
    1. Lee, Bethany C.,
    2. Sepideh Modrek,
    3. Justin S. White,
    4. Akansha Batra,
    5. Daniel F. Collin, and
    6. Rita Hamad

    . 2020. “The Effect of California’s Paid Family Leave Policy on Parent Health: A Quasi-Experimental Study.” Social Science & Medicine 251: 112915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112915.

    OpenUrlPubMed
35. ↵
    1. Lee, Sunhwa,
    2. Gi-Taik Oh,
    3. Heidi Hartmann, and
    4. Barbara Gault

    . 2004. “The Impact of Disabilities on Mothers’ Work Participation: Examining Differences Between Single and Married Mothers.” February. Institute for Women’s Policy Research. https://iwpr.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/DisabilityMothersWork.pdf.
36. ↵
    1. Lee, Yeonjung, and
    2. Fengyan Tang

    . 2015. “More Caregiving, Less Working: Caregiving Roles and Gender Difference.” Journal of Applied Gerontology 34(4): 465–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464813508649.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
37. ↵
    1. Lichtman-Sadot, Shirlee, and
    2. Neryvia Pillay Bell

    . 2017. “Child Health in Elementary School Following California’s Paid Family Leave Program.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 36(4): 790–827. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22012.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
38. ↵
    1. Loprest, Pamela, and
    2. Austin Nichols

    . 2008. “The Impact of Mental Health Treatment on Low-Income Mother’s Work.” June. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25106/412505-The-Impact-of-Mental-Health-Treatment-on-Low-Income-Mothers-Work.PDF.
39. ↵
    1. Lu, Yao,
    2. Julia Shu-Huah Wang, and
    3. Wen-Jui Han

    . 2017. “Women’s Short-Term Employment Trajectories Following Birth: Patterns, Determinants, and Variations by Race/Ethnicity and Nativity.” Demography 54(1): 93–118.

    OpenUrlPubMed
40. ↵
    1. Mathur, Aparna,
    2. Isabel V. Sawhill,
    3. Heather Boushey, et al

    . 2018. The AEI-Brookings Working Group Report on Paid Family and Medical Leave: Charting a Path Forward. September. AEI-Brookings. https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/The-AEI-Brookings-Working-Group-Report-on-Paid-Family-and-Medical-Leave.pdf.
41. ↵
    1. Milkman, Ruth, and
    2. Eileen Appelbaum

    . 2013. Unfinished Business: Paid Family Leave in California and the Future of U.S. Work-Family Policy. Cornell University Press.
42. ↵
    1. Minkler, Meredith,
    2. Esme Fuller-Thomson, and
    3. Jack M. Guralnik

    . 2006. “Gradient of Disability Across the Socioeconomic Spectrum in the United States.” New England Journal of Medicine 355(7): 695–703. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa044316.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
43. ↵
    1. Morrison, Anne, and
    2. Katherine Gallagher Robbins

    . 2015. Women in the Low-Wage Labor Force Chartbook: Women’s Overrepresentation in Low-Wage Jobs. National Women’s Law Center. Accessed May 16, 2024. https://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/chartbook_womens_overrepresentation_in_low-wage_jobs.pdf.
44. ↵
    1. National Partnership for Women & Families

    . 2024. State Paid Family & Medical Leave Insurance Laws. Accessed September 1, 2024. https://nationalpartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/state-paid-family-leave-laws.pdf.
45. ↵
    1. Oates, Gabriela R.,
    2. Bradford E. Jackson,
    3. Edward E. Partridge,
    4. Karan P. Singh,
    5. Mona N. Fouad, and
    6. Sejong Bae

    . 2017. “Sociodemographic Patterns of Chronic Disease: How the Mid-South Region Compares to the Rest of the Country.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 52(1): S31–S39. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2016.09.004.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
46. ↵
    1. Pac, Jessica,
    2. Ann Bartel,
    3. Christopher Ruhm, and
    4. Jane Waldfogel

    . 2023. “Paid Family Leave and Parental Investments in Infant Health: Evidence from California.” Economics & Human Biology 51: 101308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2023.101308.

    OpenUrlPubMed
47. ↵
    1. Pelletier, Elizabeth

    . 2024. “Economic Security and the Birth of a Child: Three Essays on Employment, Income, and Paid Leave Among Parents of Newborns.” PhD diss., University of Washington.
48. ↵
    1. Pew Research Center

    . 2019, November 6. Marriage and Cohabitation in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/11/06/marriage-and-cohabitation-in-the-u-s/.
49. ↵
    1. Pihl, Ariel, and
    2. Gaetano Basso

    . 2015. “Paid Family Leave, Job Protection and Low Take-Up Among Low-Wage Workers.” Center for Poverty Research, University of California, Davis. https://poverty.ucdavis.edu/policy-brief/paid-family-leave-job-protection-and-low-take-among-low-wage-workers.
50. ↵
    1. Rachidi, Angela

    . 2020. “Designing a Paid Leave Policy to Support Our Most Vulnerable Workers.” American Enterprise Institute. Accessed September 10, 2024. https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/designing-a-paid-leave-policy-to-support-our-most-vulnerable-workers/.
51. ↵
    1. Raub, Amy, and
    2. Jody Heymann

    . 2023. “Supporting Children’s Health Needs: An Analysis of Paid Leave Policies in 193 Countries.” Global Public Health 18(1): 2062028. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2022.2062028.

    OpenUrlPubMed
52. ↵
    1. Reinhard, Susan

    . 2019. “Home Alone Revisited: Family Caregivers Providing Complex Care.” Innovation in Aging 3(S1): S747–S748. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeroni%2Figz038.2740.

    OpenUrl
53. ↵
    1. Romich, Jennifer L

    . 2006. “Difficult Calculations: Low-Income Workers and Marginal Tax Rates.” Social Service Review 80(1): 27–66. https://doi.org/10.1086/499086.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
54. ↵
    1. Rossin, Maya

    . 2011. “The Effects of Maternity Leave on Children’s Birth and Infant Health Outcomes in the United States.” Journal of Health Economics 30(2): 221–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.01.005.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
55. ↵
    1. Rossin-Slater, Maya,
    2. Christopher J. Ruhm, and
    3. Jane Waldfogel

    . 2013. “The Effects of California’s Paid Family Leave Program on Mothers’ Leave-Taking and Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 32(2): 224–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21676.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
56. ↵
    1. Siegel, Mona L

    . 2019. “The Forgotten Origins of Paid Family Leave.” New York Times, November 29. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/29/opinion/mothers-paid-family-leave.html.
57. ↵
    1. Shrivastava, Aditi, and
    2. Gina Azito Thompson

    . 2022. “TANF Cash Assistance Should Reach Millions More Families to Lessen Hardship.” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Accessed September 14, 2024. https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/6-16-15tanf.pdf.
58. ↵
    1. Stanczyk, Alexandra B

    . 2020. “The Dynamics of U.S. Household Economic Circumstances Around a Birth.” Demography 57(4): 1271–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-020-00897-1.

    OpenUrlPubMed
59. ↵
    1. Tolman, Richard M., and
    2. Hui Chen Wang

    . 2005. “Domestic Violence and Women’s Employment: Fixed Effects Models of Three Waves of Women’s Employment Study Data.” American Journal of Community Psychology 36(1–2): 147–58. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10464-005-6239-0.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
60. ↵
    1. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

    . 2023. Women in the Labor Force: A Databook. Accessed May 16, 2024: https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womens-databook/2022/.
61. ↵
    1. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

    . 2024a, April 23. Employment Characteristics of Families—2023. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf.
62. ↵
    1. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

    . 2024b. Percentage of Civilian Workers with Access to Paid Leave by Wage Category, March 2023. Accessed May 19, 2024. https://www.bls.gov/charts/employee-benefits/percent-access-paid-leave-by-wage.htm.
63. ↵
    1. United States Census Bureau

    . 2014 and 2018. Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 2014 and 2018 Panels. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/sipp/data/datasets.html.
64. ↵
    1. United States Census Bureau

    . 2022. American Community Survey, 1-Year Estimates, Table B17010: Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months of Families by Family Type by Presence of Related Children Under 18 Years by Age of Related Children. US Census Bureau. https://data.census.gov/.
65. 1. Urban Institute

    . Welfare Rules Database. n.d. Accessed August 1, 2024. https://wrd.urban.org/.
66. ↵
    1. Vargas, Edward D., and
    2. Maureen A. Pirog

    . 2016. “Mixed-Status Families and WIC Uptake: The Effects of Risk of Deportation on Program Use.” Social Science Quarterly 97(3): 555–72.

    OpenUrlPubMed
67. 1. Washington State Legislature

    . 2025–2026. Engrossed Second Substitute House Bill 1213 (E2SHB 1213). April 25. https://app.leg.wa.gov/billsummary?BillNumber+1213&Year=2023.
68. ↵
    1. Weston Williamson, Molly

    . 2023, July 12. “Getting to Know the New Family Act.” Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/getting-to-know-the-new-family-act/.
69. ↵
    1. Whittaker, Julie M., and
    2. Katelin P. Isaacs

    . 2018. “Unemployment Compensation (UC) and Family Leave.” CRS In Focus IF10643. Accessed May 19, 2024. https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF10643.
70. ↵
    1. Ybarra, Marci

    . 2013. “Implications of Paid Family Leave for Welfare Participants.” Social Work Research 37(4): 375–87. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svt033.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
71. ↵
    1. Ybarra, Marci, and
    2. Frania Mendoza Lua

    . 2023. “No Calm Before the Storm: Low-Income Latina Immigrant and Citizen Mothers Before and After COVID-19.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 9(3): 159–83. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2023.9.3.07.

    OpenUrl
72. ↵
    1. Ybarra, Marci,
    2. Alexandra Stanczyk, and
    3. Yoonsook Ha

    . 2019. “Paid Leave, Welfare, and Material Hardship After a Birth.” Family Relations 68(1): 85–103. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Ffare.12350.

    OpenUrl
73. ↵
    1. Yoshikawa, Hirokazu

    . 2011. Immigrants Raising Citizens: Undocumented Parents and Their Young Children. Russell Sage Foundation.