Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Foundation Website
  • Journal Home
  • Issues
    • Current Issue
    • All Issues
    • Future Issues
  • For Authors and Editors
    • Overview of RSF & How to Propose an Issue
    • RSF Style and Submission Guidelines
    • Article Submission Checklist
    • Permission Request Form for Authors to Request Permission from other Publishers
    • Terms of Contributor Agreement Form and Transfer of Copyright
    • RSF Contributor Agreement Form
    • Issue Editors' Agreement Form
    • RSF Policy on the Use of AI
  • About the Journal
    • Mission Statement
    • Editorial Board
    • Comments and Replies Policy
    • Journal Code of Ethics
    • Current Calls for Articles
    • Closed Calls for Articles
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Privacy Policy
    • Copyright and ISSN Information
    • Terms of Use
    • Contact Us
  • Publications
    • rsf

User menu

  • Log in

Search

  • Advanced search
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences
  • Publications
    • rsf
  • Log in
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences

Advanced Search

  • Foundation Website
  • Journal Home
  • Issues
    • Current Issue
    • All Issues
    • Future Issues
  • For Authors and Editors
    • Overview of RSF & How to Propose an Issue
    • RSF Style and Submission Guidelines
    • Article Submission Checklist
    • Permission Request Form for Authors to Request Permission from other Publishers
    • Terms of Contributor Agreement Form and Transfer of Copyright
    • RSF Contributor Agreement Form
    • Issue Editors' Agreement Form
    • RSF Policy on the Use of AI
  • About the Journal
    • Mission Statement
    • Editorial Board
    • Comments and Replies Policy
    • Journal Code of Ethics
    • Current Calls for Articles
    • Closed Calls for Articles
    • Abstracting and Indexing
    • Privacy Policy
    • Copyright and ISSN Information
    • Terms of Use
    • Contact Us
  • Follow rsf on Twitter
  • Visit rsf on Facebook
  • Follow rsf on Google Plus
Research Article
Open Access

The Scope of Racial Bias in Policing: Behavioral Science’s Role in a Systemic Problem

John F. Dovidio, Phillip Atiba Solomon
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences October 2025, 11 (3) 22-85; DOI: https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.02
John F. Dovidio
aResearch Professor and professor emeritus in the Department of Psychology at Yale University and partner, Humanitas Institute, United States
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • ORCID record for John F. Dovidio
Phillip Atiba Solomon
bChair and Carl I. Hovland Professor of African American Studies and professor of psychology at Yale University, United States
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • References
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF
Loading

REFERENCES

  1. ↵
    1. Adebowale-Schwarte, Maria
    . 2017. The Place-Making Factor: A Catalyst for Disrupting Environment and Social Grant Making. Living Space Project.
  2. ↵
    1. Adorno, T. W.
    2019. “Morals and Criminality: On the Eleventh Volume of the Works of Karl Kraus.” In Notes to Literature, edited by Paul Kottman. Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/ador17964-027.
  3. ↵
    1. Agan, Amanda Y
    . 2024. “Racial Disparities in the Criminal Legal System: Shadows of Doubt and Beyond.” Journal of Economic Literature 62(2): 761–806. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20221569.
    OpenUrl
  4. ↵
    1. Alang, Sirry,
    2. Donna McAlpine,
    3. Ellen McCreedy, and
    4. Rachel Hardeman
    . 2017. “Police Brutality and Black Health: Setting the Agenda for Public Health Scholars.” American Journal of Public Health 107(5): 662–65. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  5. ↵
    1. Algrim, Kaylise,
    2. Carolina Herrera,
    3. Taisha Blanc, and
    4. Paul Boxer
    . 2022. “Experiences with Police in the Community: Racial/Ethnic Differences in Negative Encounters and Coping Reactions.” Journal of Community Psychology 50(8): 3716–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22867.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  6. ↵
    1. Alpert, Geoffrey P., and
    2. John M. MacDonald
    . 2001. “Police Use of Force: An Analysis of Organizational Characteristics.” Justice Quarterly 18(2): 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820100094951.
    OpenUrl
  7. ↵
    1. Alpert, Geoffrey P., and
    2. Thomas Madden
    . 1994. “Police Pursuit Driving: An Empirical Analysis of Critical Decisions.” American Journal of Police 13(4): 23–46. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/ajpol13&i=538.
    OpenUrl
  8. ↵
    1. Ambrose, Maureen L.,
    2. Marshall Schminke, and
    3. David M. Mayer
    . 2013. “Trickle-Down Effects of Supervisor Perceptions of Interactional Justice: A Moderated Mediation Approach.” Journal of Applied Psychology 98(4): 678–89. https://doi.org.10.1037/a0032080.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  9. ↵
    1. Andersen, Judith P.,
    2. Paula M. Di Nota,
    3. Evelyn C. Boychuk,
    4. Ulrich Schimmack, and
    5. Peter I. Collins
    . 2023. “Racial Bias and Lethal Force Errors among Canadian Police Officers.” Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 55(2): 130–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000296.
    OpenUrl
  10. ↵
    1. Anderson, Elijah
    . 2013. Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community. University of Chicago Press.
  11. ↵
    1. Arendt, Johannes F. W.,
    2. Katharina G. Kugler, and
    3. Felix C. Brodbeck
    . 2023. “Being on the Same Page about Social Rules and Norms: Effects of Shared Relational Models on Cooperation in Work Teams.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 26(5): 1119–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221088506.
    OpenUrl
  12. ↵
    1. Ariel, Barak,
    2. Alex Sutherland,
    3. Darren Henstock, et al
    . 2016. “Report: Increases in Police Use of Force in the Presence of Body-Worn Cameras Are Driven by Officer Discretion: A Protocol-Based Subgroup Analysis of Ten Randomized Experiments.” Journal of Experimental Criminology, 12, 453–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-016-9261-3.
    OpenUrl
  13. ↵
    1. Ariel, Barak,
    2. Alex Sutherland,
    3. Darren Henstock,
    4. Josh Young,
    5. Paul Drover,
    6. Jayne Sykes,
    7. Simon Megicks, and
    8. Ryan Henderson
    . 2017. “‘Contagious Accountability’: A Global Multisite Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effect of Police Body-Worn Cameras on Citizens’ Complaints against the Police.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 44(2): 293–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548166682.
    OpenUrl
  14. ↵
    1. Ba, Bocar A.,
    2. Dean Knox,
    3. Jonathan Mummolo, and
    4. Roman Rivera
    . 2021. “The Role of Officer Race and Gender in Police-Civilian Interactions in Chicago.” Science 371(6530): 696–702. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd8694.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  15. ↵
    1. Balko, Radley
    . 2021. Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces. Public Affairs.
  16. ↵
    1. Banaji, Mahzarin R., and
    2. Larisa Heiphetz
    . 2010. Attitudes. In Handbook of Social Psychology, 5th ed., edited by Susan T. Fiske, Daniel T. Gilbert, and Gordon Lindzey. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  17. ↵
    1. Baumgartner, Frank R.,
    2. Leah Christiani,
    3. Derek A. Epp,
    4. Kevin Roach, and
    5. Kelsey Shoub
    . 2017. “Racial Disparities in Traffic Stop Outcomes.” Duke Forum for Law and Social Change 9: 21–54.
    OpenUrl
  18. ↵
    1. Beck, Brenden
    . 2020. “Policing Gentrification: Stops and Low–Level Arrests During Demographic Change and Real Estate Reinvestment.” City & Community 19(1): 245–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12473.
    OpenUrl
  19. ↵
    1. Bezrukova, Katerina,
    2. Chester S. Spell,
    3. Jamie L. Perry, and
    4. Karen A. Jehn
    . 2016. “A Meta-Analytical Integration of over 40 Years of Research on Diversity Training Evaluation.” Psychological Bulletin 142(11): 1227–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000067.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  20. ↵
    1. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo
    . 2021. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. 6th ed. Rowman & Littlefield.
  21. ↵
    1. Boyles, Andrea S
    . 2015. Race, Place, and Suburban Policing. University of California Press.
  22. ↵
    1. Braga, Anthony A.,
    2. Rod K. Brunson, and
    3. Kevin M. Drakulich
    . 2019. “Race, Place, and Effective Policing.” Annual Review of Sociology 45: 535–55. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541.
    OpenUrl
  23. ↵
    1. Braga, Anthony A.,
    2. John M. MacDonald, and
    3. James McCabe
    . 2022. “Body-Worn Cameras, Lawful Police Stops, and NYPD Officer Compliance: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.” Criminology 60(1): 124–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12293.
    OpenUrl
  24. ↵
    1. Brayne, Sarah
    . 2014. “Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment.” American Sociological Review 79(3): 367–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414530398.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  25. ↵
    1. Brunson, Rod K
    . 2007. “‘Police Don’t Like Black People’: African-American Young Men’s Accumulated Police Experiences.” Criminology & Public Policy 6(1): 71–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00423.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  26. ↵
    1. Burke, Kelly C
    . 2023. “Why Interracial Police-Civilian Interactions Can Go Poorly: Police Officer Stereotype Threat.” Psychology, Crime, & Law 29(6): 584–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2022.2030335.
    OpenUrl
  27. ↵
    1. Burke, Kelly C.,
    2. Cynthia J. Najdowski, and
    3. Margaret C. Stevenson
    . 2023. “Racial Disparities in Policing: Psychological Consequences Over the Lifespan.” In The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology and the Law, edited by Allison D. Redlich and Jodi A. Quas. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197549513.013.26.
  28. ↵
    1. Bushway, Shawn,
    2. Andrew Jordan,
    3. Derek Neal, and
    4. Steven Raphael
    . 2025. “Understanding Race Disparities in Criminal Court Outcomes.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(3): 86–135. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.03.
    OpenUrl
  29. ↵
    1. Camp, Nicholas P
    . 2024. “Institutional Interactions and Racial Inequality in Policing: How Everyday Encounters Bridge Individuals, Organizations, and Institutions.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 18(2): e12930. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12930.
    OpenUrl
  30. ↵
    1. Camp, Nicholas, P.,
    2. Rob Voigt,
    3. Dan Jurafsky, and
    4. Jennifer L. Eberhardt
    . 2021. “The Thin Blue Waveform: Racial Disparities in Officer Prosody Undermine Institutional Trust in the Police.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 121(6): 1157–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000270.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Carlson, Jennifer
    . 2020. Police “Warriors and Police Guardians: Race. Masculinity, and the Construction of Gun Violence.” Social Problems 67(3): 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz020.
    OpenUrl
  32. ↵
    1. Carr, James D., and
    2. Sheila Royo Maxwell
    . 2018. “Police Officers’ Perceptions of Organizational Justice and Their Trust in the Public.” Police Practice and Research 19(4): 365–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2017.1387784.
    OpenUrl
  33. ↵
    1. CBS News
    . 2019. “We Asked 155 Police Departments about Their Racial Bias Training. Here’s What They Told Us.” CBS News, August 7, 2019. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/racial-bias-training-de-escalation-training-policing-in-america/.
  34. ↵
    1. Center for Policing Equity
    . 2024. “How Policing Has Changed 4 Years after George Floyd’s Murder.” May 27. https://policingequity.org/newsroom/press/how-policing-has-changed-4-years-after-george-floyds-murder.
  35. ↵
    1. Chacko, Jayne
    . 2024. “A Proposed Law Could Prohibit Connecticut Officers from Pulling Over Drivers for Low-Level Traffic Violations.” News8 WRNH.Com, March 7. https://www.wtnh.com/news/connecticut/proposal-would-ban-connecticut-police-from-conducting-traffic-stops-for-low-level-violations/.
  36. ↵
    1. Chalfin, Aaron, and
    2. Jacob Kaplan
    . 2021. “How Many Complaints Against Police Officers Can Be Abated by Incapacitating a Few ‘Bad Apples’?” Criminology & Public Policy 20(2): 351–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12542.
    OpenUrl
  37. ↵
    1. Chan, Angus,
    2. Ben Bradford, and
    3. Clifford Stott
    . 2023. “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Policing: The Effect of Social Identity and Social Contexts.” Journal of Experimental Criminology. Online ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09595-5.
  38. ↵
    1. Charbonneau, Amanda,
    2. Katherine Spencer, and
    3. Jack Glaser
    . 2017. “Understanding Racial Disparities in Police Use of Lethal Force: Lessons from Fatal Police-on-Police Shootings.” Journal of Social Issues 73(4): 744–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12246.
    OpenUrl
  39. ↵
    1. Chen, Fei-Lin,
    2. Ivan Sun,
    3. Yuning Wu, and
    4. Shun-Yung Kevin Wang
    . 2021. “Does Officer Self-Legitimacy Mediate the Linkage Between Internal and External Procedural Justice? Evidence from Taiwanese Police Officers.” Policing: An International Journal 44(5): 893–908. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2021-0047.
    OpenUrl
  40. ↵
    1. Clark, Tom S.,
    2. Elisha Cohen,
    3. Adam N. Glynn,
    4. Michael L. Owens,
    5. Anna Gunderson, and
    6. Kaylyn Jackson Schiff
    . 2023. “Are Police Racially Biased in the Decision to Shoot?” Journal of Politics 85(3): 826–42. https://doi.org/10.1086/723973.
    OpenUrl
  41. ↵
    1. Clifton, Stacey,
    2. Jose Torres, and
    3. James Hawdon
    . 2021. “Examining Guardian and Warrior Orientations Across Racial and Ethnic Lines.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 36: 436–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09427-6.
    OpenUrl
  42. ↵
    1. Cobbina-Dungy, Jennifer E., and
    2. Delores Jones-Brown
    . 2023. “Too Much Policing: Why Calls Are Made to Defund the Police.” Punishment & Society 25(1): 3–20. doi:10.1177/14624745211045652.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  43. ↵
    1. Compton, Michael T.,
    2. Masuma Bahora,
    3. Amy C. Watson, and
    4. Janet R. Oliva
    . 2008. “A Comprehensive Review of Extant Research on Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Programs.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online 36(1): 47–55.
    OpenUrl
  44. ↵
    1. Cordner, Gary
    . 2017. “Police Culture: Individual and Organizational Differences in Police Officer Perspectives.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 40(1): 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2016-0116.
    OpenUrl
  45. ↵
    1. Correll, Joshua,
    2. Bernadette Park,
    3. Charles M. Judd, and
    4. Bernd Wittenbrink
    . 2002. “The Police Officer’s Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83(6): 1314–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  46. ↵
    1. Correll, Joshua,
    2. Bernadette Park,
    3. Charles M. Judd,
    4. Bernd Wittenbrink,
    5. Melody Sadler, and
    6. Tracie Keesee
    . 2007. “Across the Thin Blue Line: Police Officers and Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92(6): 1006–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1006.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  47. ↵
    1. Correll, Joshua,
    2. Geoffrey R. Urland, and
    3. Tiffany A. Ito
    . 2006. “Event-Related Potentials and the Decision to Shoot: The Role of Threat Perception and Cognitive Control.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42(1): 120–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.02.006.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  48. ↵
    1. Cox, William T. L.,
    2. Patricia G. Devine,
    3. E. Ashby Plant, and
    4. Lauri L. Schwartz
    . 2014. “Toward a Comprehensive Understanding of Officers’ Shooting Decisions: No Simple Answers to This Complex Problem.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 36(4): 356–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2014.923312.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  49. ↵
    1. Crank, John P
    . 2014. Understanding Police Culture. 2nd ed. Routledge.
  50. ↵
    1. Crawford, Jarret T., and
    2. Mark J. Brandt
    . 2019. “Who Is Prejudiced, and Toward Whom? The Big Five Traits and Generalized Prejudice.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(10): 1455–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219832335.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  51. ↵
    1. Cropanzano, Russell,
    2. David E. Bowen, and
    3. Stephen W. Gilliland
    . 2007. “The Management of Organizational Justice.” Academy of Management Perspectives 21(4): 34–48. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2007.27895338.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  52. ↵
    1. Crow, Matthew S., and
    2. Brittany Adrion
    . 2011. “Focal Concerns and Police Use of Force: Examining the Factors Associated with Taser Use.” Police Quarterly 14(4): 366–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611111423740.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  53. ↵
    1. Curtis, David S.,
    2. Tessa Washburn,
    3. Hedwig Lee, et al
    . 2021. “Highly Public Anti-Black Violence Is Associated with Poor Mental Health Days for Black Americans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(17): e2019624118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2019624118.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  54. ↵
    1. Daumeyer, Natalie M.,
    2. Ivuoma N. Onyeador,
    3. Xanni Brown, and
    4. Jennifer A. Richeson
    . 2019. “Consequences of Attributing Discrimination to Implicit vs. Explicit Bias.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 84: 103812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.04.010.
    OpenUrl
  55. ↵
    1. Del Toro, Juan,
    2. Tracey Lloyd,
    3. Kim S. Buchanan, et al
    . 2019. “The Criminogenic and Psychological Effects of Police Stops on Adolescent Black and Latino Boys.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(17): 8261–68. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808976116.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  56. ↵
    1. Desai, Miraj U.,
    2. Leswin Laubscher, and
    3. Spencer Johnson
    . 2023. “Perspectives (of People of Color) on Psychological Science: Does Psychological Science Listen?” Review of General Psychology 27(2): 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680221118038.
    OpenUrl
  57. ↵
    1. Desai, Miraj U.,
    2. Nadika Paranamana,
    3. John F. Dovidio,
    4. Larry Davidson, and
    5. Victoria Stanhope
    . 2023. “System-Centered Care: How Bureaucracy and Racialization Decenter Attempts at Person-Centered Mental Health Care.” Clinical Psychological Science 11(3): 476–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221133053.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  58. ↵
    1. Desilver, Drew,
    2. Michael Lipka, and
    3. Dalia Fahmy
    . 2020. “10 Things We Know about Race and Policing in the U.S.” Pew Research Center. Last modified June 3, 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/03/10-things-we-know-about-race-and-policing-in-the-u-s/.
  59. ↵
    1. Devine, Patricia G
    . 1989. “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56(1): 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  60. ↵
    1. Devine, Patricia G., and
    2. Tory L. Ash
    . 2022. “Diversity Training Goals, Limitations, and Promise: A Review of the Multidisciplinary Literature.” Annual Review of Psychology 73: 403–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-060221-122215.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  61. ↵
    1. DeVylder, Jordan E.,
    2. Jodi J. Frey,
    3. Courtney D. Cogburn, et al
    . 2017. “Elevated Prevalence of Suicide Attempts Among Victims of Police Violence in the USA.” Journal of Urban Health 94: 629–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0160-3.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  62. ↵
    1. DeVylder, Jordan E.,
    2. Hans Y. Oh,
    3. Boyoung Nam,
    4. Tanya L. Sharpe,
    5. Meshan Lehmann, and
    6. Bruce G. Link
    . 2017. “Prevalence, Demographic Variation and Psychological Correlates of Exposure to Police Victimisation in Four US Cities.” Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 26(5): 466–77. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000810.
    OpenUrl
  63. ↵
    1. Dobbin, Frank, and
    2. Alexandra Kalev
    . 2022. Getting to Diversity: What Works and What Doesn’t. Harvard University Press.
  64. ↵
    1. Donner, Christopher,
    2. Jon Maskaly,
    3. Lorie Fridell, and
    4. Wesley G. Jennings
    . 2015. “Policing and Procedural Justice: A State-of-the-Art Review.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 38(1): 153–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2014-0129.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  65. ↵
    1. Dover, Tessa L.,
    2. Cheryl R. Kaiser, and
    3. Brenda Major
    . 2020. “Mixed Signals: The Unintended Effects of Diversity Initiatives.” Social Issues and Policy Review 14(1): 152–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12059.
    OpenUrl
  66. ↵
    1. Dovidio, John F
    . 2001. “On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave.” Journal of Social Issues 57(4): 829–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00244.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  67. ↵
    1. Du Bois, W. E. B.
    1935. “A Negro Nation Within the Nation.” Current History (1916–1940) 42(3): 265–70.
    OpenUrl
  68. ↵
    1. Dube, Oeindrila,
    2. Sandy Jo MacArthur, and
    3. Anuj K. Shah
    . 2025. “A Cognitive View of Policing.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 140(1): 745–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjae039.
    OpenUrl
  69. ↵
    1. Dubord, Neil, and
    2. Curt Taylor Griffiths
    . 2021. “Creating a Change Culture in a Police Service: The Role of Police Leadership.” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 15(1): 168–80. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paz055.
    OpenUrl
  70. ↵
    1. Duckitt, John, and
    2. Chris G. Sibley
    . 2017. “The Dual Process Motivational Model of Ideology and Prejudice.” In The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice, edited by Chris G. Sibley and Fiona K. Barlow. Cambridge University Press.
  71. ↵
    1. Dumke, Mike
    . 2018. “Chicago’s Gang Database Is Full of Errors—And Records We Have to Prove It.” ProPublica, April 18, 2018. https://www.propublica.org/article/politic-il-insider-chicago-gang-database.
  72. ↵
    1. Dunlea, James P., and
    2. Larisa Heiphetz
    . 2021. “Moral Psychology as a Necessary Bridge Between Social Cognition and Law.” Social Cognition 39(1): 183–99. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2021.39.1.183.
    OpenUrl
  73. ↵
    1. Durán, Robert J., and
    2. Charlene M. Shroulote-Durán
    . 2021. “The Racialized Patterns of Police Violence: The Critical Importance of Research as Praxis.” Sociology Compass 15(8): e12912. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/soc4.12912.
    OpenUrl
  74. ↵
    1. Eberhardt, Jennifer L.,
    2. Paul G. Davies,
    3. Valerie J. Purdie-Vaughns, and
    4. Sheri Lynn Johnson
    . 2006. “Looking Deathworthy: Perceived Stereotypicality of Black Defendants Predicts Capital-Sentencing Outcomes.” Psychological Science 17(5): 383–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  75. ↵
    1. Eberhardt, Jennifer L.,
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff,
    3. Valerie J. Purdie, and
    4. Paul G. Davies
    . 2004. “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87(6): 876–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  76. ↵
    1. Edwards, Frank,
    2. Hedwig Lee, and
    3. Michael Esposito
    . 2019. “Risk of Being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race-Ethnicity, and Sex.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(34): 16793–98. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821204116.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  77. ↵
    1. Eitle, David,
    2. Stewart J. D’Alessio, and
    3. Lisa Stolzenberg
    . 2014. “The Effect of Organizational and Environmental Factors on Police Misconduct.” Police Quarterly 17(2): 103–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611114522042.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  78. ↵
    1. Engel, Robin S.,
    2. Hannah D. McManus, and
    3. Tamara D. Herold
    . 2020. “Does De-escalation Training Work? A Systematic Review and Call for Evidence in Police Use-of-Force Reform.” Criminology and Public Policy 19(3): 721–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12467.
    OpenUrl
  79. ↵
    1. Epstein, Liana Maris, and
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2011. “Safety or Liberty? The Bogus Trade-Off of Cross-Deputization Policy.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 11(1): 314–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01246.x.
    OpenUrl
  80. ↵
    1. Fagan, Jeffrey,
    2. Anthony A. Braga,
    3. Rod K. Brunson, and
    4. April Pattavina
    . 2016. “Stops and Stares: Street Stops, Surveillance, and Race in the New Policing.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 43(3): 539–614. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/frdurb43&div=20&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals
    OpenUrl
  81. ↵
    1. Fagan, Jeffrey, and
    2. Garth Davies
    . 2000. “Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 28(2): 457–504. https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol28/iss2/2.
    OpenUrl
  82. ↵
    1. Farrell, Chelsea
    . 2024. “Policing Gender, Race, and Place: A Multi-Level Assessment of Stop and Frisks.” Race and Justice 14(3): 290–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/21533687221078970.
    OpenUrl
  83. ↵
    1. Feldman, Justin M.,
    2. Sofia Gruskin,
    3. Brent A. Coull, and
    4. Nancy Krieger
    . 2019. “Police-Related Deaths and Neighborhood Economic and Racial/Ethnic Polarization, United States, 2015–2016.” American Journal of Public Health 109(3): 458–64. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304851.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  84. ↵
    1. Fernandes, April D.,
    2. Michele Cadigan,
    3. Frank Edwards, and
    4. Alexes Harris
    . 2019. “Monetary Sanctions: A Review of Revenue Generation, Legal Challenges, and Reform.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 15: 397–413. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042816.
    OpenUrl
  85. ↵
    1. Fix, Rebecca L.,
    2. Jeffrey Aaron, and
    3. Sheldon Greenberg
    . 2023. “Community Crime, Poverty, and Proportion of Black Residents Influence Police Descriptions of Adolescents.” Law and Human Behavior 47(1): 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000499.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  86. ↵
    1. Foels, Robert, and
    2. Felicia Pratto
    . 2015. “The Hidden Dynamics of Discrimination: How Ideologies Organize Power and Influence Intergroup Relations.” In APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 2. Group Processes, edited by Mario Mikulincer, Phillip R. Shaver, John F. Dovidio, and Jeffry A. Simpson. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14342-013.
  87. ↵
    1. Fowers, Alyssa, and
    2. William Wan
    . 2020. “Depression and Anxiety Spiked Among Black Americans After George Floyd’s Death.” Washington Post. June 12, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/06/12/mental-health-george-floyd-census/.
  88. ↵
    1. Fridell, Lorie A
    . 2016. “Racial Aspects of Police Shootings.” Criminology & Public Policy 15(2): 481–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12189.
    OpenUrl
  89. ↵
    1. Fyfe, James J
    . 1988. “Police Use of Deadly Force: Research and Reform.” Justice Quarterly 5(2): 165–205. https://doi.prg/10.1080/07418828800089691.
    OpenUrl
  90. ↵
    1. Gash, Norman
    . 2011. Mr. Secretary Peele: The Life of Sir Robert Peel to 1830. Faber & Faber.
  91. ↵
    1. Gaston, Shytierra, and
    2. Rod K. Brunson
    . 2020. “Reasonable Suspicion in the Eye of the Beholder: Routine Policing in Racially Different Disadvantaged Neighborhoods.” Urban Affairs Review 56(1): 188–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087418774641.
    OpenUrl
  92. ↵
    1. Gatto, Juliette, and
    2. Michael Dambrun
    . 2012. “Authoritarianism, Social Dominance, and Prejudice Among Junior Police Officers: The Role of Normative Context.” Social Psychology 43(2): 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000081.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  93. ↵
    1. Gatto, Juliette,
    2. Michaël Dambrun,
    3. Christian Kerbrat, and
    4. Pierre De Oliveira
    . 2010. “Prejudice in the Police: On the Processes Underlying the Effects of Selection and Group Socialisation.” European Journal of Social Psychology 40(2): 252–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.617.
    OpenUrl
  94. ↵
    1. Geller, William A., and
    2. Michael Scott
    . 1992. Deadly Force: What We Know: A Practitioner’s Desk Reference on Police-Involved Shootings. Police Executive Research Forum.
  95. ↵
    1. Ghamgosar, Arezoo,
    2. Leila Nemati-Anaraki, and
    3. Sirous Panahi
    . 2023. “Barriers and Facilitators of Conducting Research with Team Science Approach: A Systematic Review.” BMC Medical Education 23(1): 638. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04619-0.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  96. ↵
    1. Glantz, Aaron, and
    2. Emmanuel Martinez
    . 2018. “For People of Color, Banks Are Shutting the Door to Homeownership.” Reveal News, February 15, 2018. https://revealnews.org/article/for-people-of-color-banks-are-shutting-the-door-to-homeownership/.
  97. ↵
    1. Glaser, Jack
    . 2024. “Disrupting the Effects of Implicit Bias: The Case of Discretion & Policing.” Daedalus 153(1): 151–73. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_02053.
    OpenUrl
  98. ↵
    1. Goel, Sharad,
    2. Justin M. Rao, and
    3. Ravi Shroff
    . 2016. “Precinct or Prejudice? Understanding Racial Disparities in New York City’s Stop-and-Frisk Policy.” Annals of Applied Statistics 10(1): 365–94. https://doi.org/10.1214/15-AOAS897.
    OpenUrl
  99. ↵
    1. Goff, Phillip Atiba
    . 2016. “Identity Traps: How to Think about Race & Policing.” Behavioral Science & Policy 2(2): 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/237946151600200203.
    OpenUrl
  100. ↵
    1. Goff, Phillip Atiba
    . 2021. “Asking the Right Questions about Race and Policing.” Science 371(6530): 677–78. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.abf4518.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  101. ↵
    1. Goff, Phillip Atiba,
    2. Jennifer L. Eberhardt,
    3. Melissa J. Williams,
    4. Matthew Christian Jackson
    . 2008. “Not Yet Human: Implicit Knowledge, Historical Dehumanization, and Contemporary Consequences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94(2): 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.292.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  102. ↵
    1. Goff, Phillip Atiba,
    2. Matthew Christian Jackson,
    3. Brooke Allison Lewis Di Leone,
    4. Carmen Marie Culotta, and
    5. Natalie Ann DiTomasso
    . 2014. “The Essence of Innocence: Consequences of Dehumanizing Black Children.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 106(4): 526–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  103. ↵
    1. Goff, Phillip Atiba,
    2. Tracey Shollenberger Lloyd,
    3. Amanda Beth Geller,
    4. Steven Raphael, and
    5. Jack Glaser
    . 2016. “The Science of Justice: Race, Arrests, and Police Use of Force.” Center for Policing Equity. https://policingequity.org/images/pdfs-doc/CPE_SoJ_Race-Arrests-UoF_2016-07-08-1130.pdf.
  104. ↵
    1. Goldstein, Rebecca,
    2. Michael W. Sances, and
    3. Hye Young You
    . 2020. “Exploitative Revenues, Law Enforcement, and the Quality of Government Service.” Urban Affairs Review 56(1): 5–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087418791775.
    OpenUrl
  105. ↵
    1. Goncalves, Felipe, and
    2. Steven Mello
    . 2021. “A Few Bad Apples? Racial Bias in Policing.” American Economic Review 111(5):1406–41. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181607.
    OpenUrl
  106. ↵
    1. Goodwin, Stephanie A.,
    2. Dawn Culpepper, and
    3. Robyn Mallett
    . Forthcoming. “Promoting Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Through Individual Action.” In The Sage Handbook of Psychological Perspectives on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion, edited by Victoria M. Esses, John F. Dovidio, Jolanda Jetten, Denise Sekaquaptewa, and Keon West. Sage Publishers.
  107. ↵
    1. Gordon, Daanika
    . 2024. “The Bureaucratic Dissociation of Race in Policing: From State Racial Projects to Colorblind Ideologies.” Social Problems 71(2): 377–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spac019.
    OpenUrl
  108. ↵
    1. Graham, Amanda,
    2. Murat Haner,
    3. Melissa M. Sloan,
    4. Francis T. Cullen,
    5. Teresa C. Kulig, and
    6. Cheryl Lero Jonson
    . 2020. “Race and Worrying About Police Brutality: The Hidden Injuries of Minority Status in America.” Victims & Offenders 15(5): 549–573. “https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2020.1767252.
    OpenUrl
  109. ↵
    1. Graham, Sandra, and
    2. Brian S. Lowery
    . 2004. “Priming Unconscious Racial Stereotypes About Adolescent Offenders.” Law and Human Behavior 28: 483–504. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:LAHU.0000046430.65485.1f.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  110. ↵
    1. Graham, Shannon R., and
    2. Michael D. Makowsky
    . 2021. “Local Government Dependence on Criminal Justice Revenue and Emerging Constraints.” Annual Review of Criminology 4: 311–30. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-021824.
    OpenUrl
  111. ↵
    1. Greenwald, Anthony G.,
    2. Miguel Brendl,
    3. Huajian Cai, et al
    . 2022. “Best Research Practices for Using the Implicit Association Test.” Behavior Research Methods 54: 1161–80. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01624-3.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  112. ↵
    1. Greenwald, Anthony G.,
    2. Nilanjana Dasgupta,
    3. John F. Dovidio,
    4. Jerry Kang,
    5. Corinne A. Moss-Racusin, and
    6. Bethany A. Teachman
    . 2022. “Implicit-Bias Remedies: Treating Discriminatory Bias as a Public-Health Problem.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 23(1): 7–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006211070781.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  113. ↵
    1. Haile, Rahwa,
    2. Tawandra Rowell-Cunsolo,
    3. Marie-Fatima Hyacinthe, and
    4. Siri Alang
    . 2023. “‘We (Still) Charge Genocide’: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of the Direct and Indirect Health Consequences of Police Violence.” Social Science & Medicine 322: 115784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115784.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  114. ↵
    1. Hamel, Liz,
    2. Audrey Kearney,
    3. Ashley Kirzinger,
    4. Lunna Lopes,
    5. Cally Munana, and
    6. Mollyann Brodie
    . 2020. “KFF Health Tracking Poll—2020.” Kaiser Family Foundation, June 26. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/report/kff-health-tracking-poll-june-2020/.
  115. ↵
    1. Hammack, Phillip L
    . 2008. “Narrative and the Cultural Psychology of Identity.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 12(3): 222–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308316892.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  116. ↵
    1. Haslam, S. Alexander,
    2. Stephen D. Reicher, and
    3. Michael J. Platos
    . 2020. The New Psychology of Leadership: Identity, Influence, and Power. 2nd ed. Routledge.
  117. ↵
    1. Hehman, Eric,
    2. Jessica K. Flake, and
    3. Jimmy Calanchini
    . 2018. “Disproportionate Use of Lethal Force in Policing Is Associated with Regional Racial Biases of Residents.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 9(4): 393–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617711229.
    OpenUrl
  118. ↵
    1. Henning, Kristin
    . 2021. The Rage of Innocence: How America Criminalizes Black Youth. Pantheon Books.
  119. ↵
    1. Hinton, Elizabeth
    . 2016. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America. Harvard University Press.
  120. ↵
    1. Hinton, Elizabeth, and
    2. DeAnza Cook
    . 2021. “The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview.” Annual Review of Criminology 4: 261–86. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306.
    OpenUrl
  121. ↵
    1. Ho, Arnold K.,
    2. Jim Sidanius,
    3. Nour Kteily, et al
    . 2015. “The Nature of Social Dominance Orientation: Theorizing and Measuring Preferences for Intergroup Inequality Using the New SDO7 Scale.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109(6): 1003–1028. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000033.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  122. ↵
    1. Hoekstra, Mark, and
    2. CarlyWill Sloan
    . 2022. “Does Race Matter for Police Use of Force? Evidence from 911 Calls.” American Economic Review 112(3): 827–60. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20201292.
    OpenUrl
  123. ↵
    1. Hollis, Meghan E., and
    2. Wesley G. Jennings
    . 2018. “Racial Disparities in Police Use-of-Force: A State-of-the-Art Review.” Policing: An International Journal 41(2): 178–93. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-09-2017-0112.
    OpenUrl
  124. ↵
    1. Horton, Jake
    . 2021. “How US Police Training Compares to the Rest of the World.” BBC, May 17. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56834733.
  125. ↵
    1. Hübert, Ryan, and
    2. Andrew T. Little
    . 2023. “A Behavioural Theory of Discrimination in Policing.” Economic Journal 133(655): 2828–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uead043.
    OpenUrl
  126. ↵
    1. Huddy, Leonie, and
    2. Nadia Khatib
    . 2007. “American Patriotism, National Identity, and Political Involvement.” American Journal of Political Science 51(1): 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00237.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  127. ↵
    1. Huff, Jessica
    . 2021. “Understanding Police Decisions to Arrest: The Impact of Situational, Officer, and Neighborhood Characteristics on Police Discretion.” Journal of Criminal Justice 75: 101829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101829.
    OpenUrl
  128. ↵
    1. Hugenberg, Kurt and
    2. Galen V. Bodenhausen
    . 2003. “Facing Prejudice: Implicit Prejudice and the Perception of Facial Threat.” Psychological Science 14(6): 640–43. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1478.x
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  129. ↵
    1. Hughes, Thomas W.,
    2. Bradley A. Campbell, and
    3. Brian P. Schaefer
    . 2020. “The Influence of Body-Worn Cameras, Minority Threat, and Place on Police Activity.” Journal of Community Psychology 48(1): 68–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22299.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  130. ↵
    1. Imran, Mohammed,
    2. Mosharrof Hosen, and
    3. Mohammad Ashraful Ferdous Chowdhury
    . 2018. “Does Poverty Lead to Crime? Evidence from the United States of America.” International Journal of Social Economics 45(10): 1424–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-04-2017-0167.
    OpenUrl
  131. ↵
    1. Ingram, Jason R.,
    2. Eugene A. Paoline , III,
    3. Alexis R. Rockwell, and
    4. Andia M. Azimi
    . 2023. “Police Chief Culture: A View from the Top.” Police Quarterly 26(2): 245–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111221114332.
    OpenUrl
  132. ↵
    1. Ingram, Jason R.,
    2. William Terrill, and
    3. Eugene A. Paoline , III
    . 2018. “Police Culture and Officer Behavior: Application of a Multilevel Framework.” Criminology 56(4): 780–811. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12192.
    OpenUrl
  133. ↵
    1. James, Lois
    . 2018. “The Stability of Implicit Racial Bias in Police Officers.” Police Quarterly 21(1): 30–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611117732974.
    OpenUrl
  134. ↵
    1. James, Lois,
    2. Bryan Vila, and
    3. Kenn Daratha
    . 2013. “Results from Experimental Trials Testing Participant Responses to White, Hispanic and Black Suspects in High-Fidelity Deadly Force Judgment and Decision-Making Simulations.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 9: 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-012-9163-y.
    OpenUrl
  135. ↵
    1. James, Lois,
    2. Stephen M. James, and
    3. Bryan J. Vila
    . 2016. “The Reverse Racism Effect: Are Cops More Hesitant to Shoot Black than White Suspects?” Criminology & Public Policy 15: 457–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12187.
    OpenUrl
  136. ↵
    1. James, Lois,
    2. Stephen James, and
    3. Bryan Vila
    . 2017. “Does the ‘Reverse Racism Effect’ Withstand the Test of Police Officer Fatigue?” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 40(2): 184–96. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2016-0006.
    OpenUrl
  137. ↵
    1. Jamieson, Lynn M.,
    2. Asuncion Suren, and
    3. Julie Knapp
    . 2000. “A Competency Analysis of Law Enforcement Training and Its Linkage to Recreation as Intervention in Youth Crime Prevention.” Journal of Criminal Justice 28(3): 215–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(00)00037-4.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  138. ↵
    1. Jennings, Jay T., and
    2. Meghan E. Rubado
    . 2017. “Preventing the Use of Deadly Force: The Relationship Between Police Agency Policies and Rates of Officer-Involved Gun Deaths.” Public Administration Review 77(2): 217–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12738.
    OpenUrl
  139. ↵
    1. Jones, Nikki
    . 2014. “‘The Regular Routine’: Proactive Policing and Adolescent Development Among Young, Poor Black Men.” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 143: 33–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20053.
    OpenUrl
  140. ↵
    1. Jost, John T
    . 2020. A Theory of System Justification. Harvard University Press.
  141. ↵
    1. Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian, and
    2. Paul G. Davies
    . 2011. “Differentially Dangerous? Phenotypic Racial Stereotypicality Increases Implicit Bias among Ingroup and Outgroup Members.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 14(4): 569–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210374609.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  142. ↵
    1. Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian,
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff,
    3. J. Katherine Lee, and
    4. Diane Motamed
    . 2016. “Protecting Whiteness: White Phenotypic Racial Stereotypicality Reduces Police Use of Force.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 7(5): 403–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616633505.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  143. ↵
    1. Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian,
    2. Joel S. Steele,
    3. Jean M. McMahon, and
    4. Greg Stewart
    . 2017. “How Suspect Race Affects Police Use of Force in an Interaction over Time.” Law & Human Behavior 41(2): 117–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/LHB0000218.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  144. ↵
    1. Kawakami, Kerry,
    2. John F. Dovidio, and
    3. Simone van Kamp
    . 2005. “Kicking the Habit: Effects of Nonstereotypic Association Training and Correction Processes on Hiring Decisions.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41(1): 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.05.004.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  145. ↵
    1. Kawakami, Kerry,
    2. Elizabeth Dunn,
    3. Francine Karmali, and
    4. John F. Dovidio
    . 2009. “Mispredicting Affective and Behavioral Responses to Racism.” Science 323(5911): 276–78. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1164951.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  146. ↵
    1. Kerrison, Erin M., and
    2. Alyasah A. Sewell
    . 2020. “Negative Illness Feedbacks: High-Frisk Policing Reduces Civilian Reliance on ED Services.” Health Services Research 55: 787–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13554.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  147. ↵
    1. Kleider-Offutt, Heather M.,
    2. Alesha D. Bond, and
    3. Shanna E. A. Hegerty
    . 2017. “Black Stereotypical Features: When a Face Type Can Get You in Trouble.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 26(1): 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416667916.
    OpenUrl
  148. ↵
    1. Knowles, John,
    2. Nicola Persico, and
    3. Petra Todd
    . 2001. “Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence.” Journal of Political Economy 109(1): 203–29. https://doi.org/10.1086/318603.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  149. ↵
    1. Knox, Dean,
    2. Will Lowe, and
    3. Jonathan Mummolo
    . 2020. “Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing.” American Political Science Review 114(3): 619–37. doi:10.1017/S0003055420000039.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  150. ↵
    1. Kochel, Tammy R., and
    2. Seyvan Nouri
    . 2024. “Impact of In-Service Implicit Bias Training: A Study of Attitudinal Changes and Intention to Apply Anti-Bias Techniques.” Police Quarterly 27(4): 561–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611124123751.
    OpenUrl
  151. ↵
    1. Kovera, Margaret Bull
    . 2019. “Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System: Prevalence, Causes, and a Search for Solutions.” Journal of Social Issues 75(4): 1139–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12355.
    OpenUrl
  152. ↵
    1. Kovera, Margaret Bull,
    2. Jacqueline Katzman,
    3. Jennifer M. Jones, and
    4. Melanie B. Fessinger
    . 2022. “Science-Based Recommendations for the Collection of Eyewitness Identification Evidence.” Court Review 58(3): 130–40. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1847&context=ajacourtreview.
    OpenUrl
  153. ↵
    1. Kramer, Rory, and
    2. Brianna Remster
    . 2022. “The Slow Violence of Contemporary Policing.” Annual Review of Criminology 5: 43–66. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-030321-041307.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  154. ↵
    1. Kumar, Victor,
    2. Aditi Kodipady, and
    3. Liane Young
    . 2023. “A Psychological Account of the Unique Decline in Anti-Gay Attitudes.” Philosophical Psychology: 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2023.2249500.
  155. ↵
    1. Kurdi, Benedek,
    2. Allison E. Seitchik,
    3. Jordan R. Axt, et al
    . 2019. “Relationship Between the Implicit Association Test and Intergroup Behavior: A Meta-Analysis.” American Psychologist 74(5): 569–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000364.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  156. ↵
    1. Lai, Calvin K., and
    2. Jaclyn A. Lisnek
    . 2023. “The Impact of Implicit-Bias-Oriented Diversity Training on Police Officers’ Beliefs, Motivations, and Actions.” Psychological Science 34(4): 424–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976221150617.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  157. ↵
    1. Lai, Calvin K., and
    2. Megan E. Wilson
    . 2021. “Measuring Implicit Intergroup Biases.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 15(1): e12573. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12573.
    OpenUrl
  158. ↵
    1. Lamb, H. Richard, and
    2. Linda E. Weinberger
    . 2020. “Deinstitutionalization and Other Factors in the Criminalization of Persons with Serious Mental Illness and How It Is Being Addressed.” CNS Spectrums 25(2): 173–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852919001524.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  159. ↵
    1. Laniyonu, Ayobami
    . 2018. “Coffee Shops and Street Stops: Policing Practices in Gentrifying Neighborhoods.” Urban Affairs Review 54(5): 898–930. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087416689728.
    OpenUrl
  160. ↵
    1. Laniyonu, Ayobami, and
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2021. “Measuring Disparities in Police Use of Force and Injury Among Persons with Serious Mental Illness.” BMC Psychiatry 21: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03510-w.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  161. ↵
    1. László, Jånos
    . 2008. The Science of Stories: An Introduction to Narrative Psychology. Routledge.
  162. ↵
    1. Lee, Hedwig,
    2. Alexandra Gibbons,
    3. Garrett Baker, and
    4. Christoper Wildeman
    . 2025. “The Fallout from Criminal Justice System Contact.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(3): 174–229. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.05.
    OpenUrl
  163. ↵
    1. Lee, Joongyeup
    . 2016. “Police Use of Nonlethal Force in New York City: Situational and Community Factors.” Policing and Society 26(8): 875–88. https://doi.org.10.1080/10439463.2014.989162.
    OpenUrl
  164. ↵
    1. Legewie, Joscha
    . 2016. “Racial Proving and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination.” American Journal of Sociology 122(2): 379–424. https://doi.org/10.1086/687518.
    OpenUrl
  165. ↵
    1. Lerman, Amy E., and
    2. Vesla M. Weaver
    . 2020. Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control. University of Chicago Press.
  166. ↵
    1. Levchak, Philip J
    . 2017. “Do Precinct Characteristics Influence Stop-and-Frisk in New York City? A Multi-Level Analysis of Post-Stop Outcomes.” Justice Quarterly 34(3): 377–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1162320.
    OpenUrl
  167. ↵
    1. Lim, Hyeyoung,
    2. Brian Lawton, and
    3. John J. Sloan
    . 2024. “Policing Asian Communities in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review and Discussion.” Policing: An International Journal 47(2): 150166. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-04-2023-0053.
    OpenUrl
  168. ↵
    1. Loader, Ian
    . 2000. “Plural Policing and Democratic Governance.” Social & Legal Studies 9(3): 323–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663900009003.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  169. ↵
    1. Looney, Adam, and
    2. Nicholas Turner
    . 2018. “Work and Opportunity Before and After Incarceration.” Brookings. Last modified March 14, 2018. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/work-and-opportunity-before-and-after-incarceration/.
  170. ↵
    1. Lum, Cynthia,
    2. Megan Stoltz,
    3. Christopher S. Koper, and
    4. J. Amber Scherer
    . 2019. “The Research on Body-Worn Cameras: What We Know, What We Need to Know.” Criminology and Public Policy 18(1): 93–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12412.
    OpenUrl
  171. ↵
    1. Ma, Debbie S.,
    2. Joshua Correll,
    3. Bernd Wittenbrink,
    4. Yoav Bar-Anan,
    5. N. Sriram, and
    6. Brian A. Nosek
    . 2013. “When Fatigue Turns Deadly: The Association Between Fatigue and Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 35(6): 515–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2013.840630.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  172. ↵
    1. Machado, Mychal A. and
    2. Ashley M. Lugo
    . 2022. “A Behavioral Analysis of Two Strategies to Eliminate Racial Bias in Police Use of Force.” Behavior Analysis in Practice 15(4): 1221–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00551-1.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  173. ↵
    1. Makowsky, Michael D.,
    2. Thomas Stratmann, and
    3. Alex Tabarrok
    . 2019. “To Serve and Collect: The Fiscal and Racial Determinants of Law Enforcement.” Journal of Legal Studies 48(1): 189–216. https://doi.org/10.1086/700589.
    OpenUrl
    1. March, David S
    . 2023. “Perceiving a Danger Within: Black Americans Associate Black Men with Physical Threat.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 14(8): 942–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221142970.
    OpenUrl
  174. ↵
    1. Markus, Hazel R., and
    2. Shinobu Kitayama
    . 2014. “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation.” In College Student Development and Academic Life, edited by Phillip G. Altbach, Karen Arnold, and Ilda Carreiro King. Routledge.
  175. ↵
    1. Massey, Douglas S
    . 2016. “Segregation and the Perpetuation of Disadvantage.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty, edited by David Brady and Linda M. Burton. Oxford University Press.
  176. ↵
    1. Masterson, Suzanne S
    . 2001. “A Trickle-Down Model of Organizational Justice: Relating Employees’ and Customers’ Perceptions of and Reactions to Fairness.” Journal of Applied Psychology 86(4): 594–604. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.594.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  177. ↵
    1. Mazerolle, Lorraine,
    2. Emma Antrobus,
    3. Sarah Bennett, and
    4. Tom R. Tyler
    . 2013. “Shaping Citizen Perceptions of Police Legitimacy: A Randomized Field Trial of Procedural Justice.” Criminology 51(1): 33–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00289.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Mazerolle, Lorraine,
    2. Sarah Bennett,
    3. Jacqueline Davis,
    4. Elise Sargeant, and
    5. Matthew Manning
    . 2013. “Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy: A Systematic Review of the Research Evidence.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 9(2): 245–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-013-9175-2.
    OpenUrl
  178. ↵
    1. McCarthy, Molly,
    2. Rick Trinkner, and
    3. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2021. “The Threat of Appearing Racist: Stereotype Threat and Support for Coercion Among Australian Police Officers.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 48(6): 776–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854821993513.
    OpenUrl
    1. McCluskey, John D.,
    2. Craig D. Uchida,
    3. Shellie E. Solomon,
    4. Alese Wooditch,
    5. Christine Connor, and
    6. Lauren Revier
    . 2019. “Assessing the Effects of Body-Worn Cameras on Procedural Justice in the Los Angeles Police Department.” Criminology 57(2): 208–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12201.
    OpenUrl
  179. ↵
    1. McDonald, Sheldon
    . 2025. “Exploring the Potential for Educational Anti-Racism and Automated Decision-Making Theories to Bolster the Efficacy of Using Body-Worn Cameras to Mitigate Racially Biased Police Behavior.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 19(1): e70031. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70031.
    OpenUrl
  180. ↵
    1. McElvain, James P., and
    2. Augustine J. Kposowa
    . 2004. “Police Officer Characteristics and Internal Affairs Investigations for Use of Force Allegations.” Journal of Criminal Justice 32(3): 265–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.02.006.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  181. ↵
    1. McLean, Kyle,
    2. Scott E. Wolfe,
    3. Jeff Rojek,
    4. Geoffrey P. Alpert, and
    5. Michael R. Smith
    . 2020. “Police Officers as Warriors or Guardians: Empirical Reality or Intriguing Rhetoric?” Justice Quarterly 37(6): 1096–1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1533031.
    OpenUrl
  182. ↵
    1. Mekawi, Yara, and
    2. Konrad Bresin
    . 2015. “Is the Evidence from Racial Bias Shooting Task Studies a Smoking Gun? Results from a Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 61(11): 120–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.08.002.
    OpenUrl
  183. ↵
    1. Mello, Steven
    . 2019. “More COPS, Less Crime.” Journal of Public Economics 172: 174–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.12.003.
    OpenUrl
  184. ↵
    1. Meyer, Margaret A., and
    2. Richard Gonzalez
    . 2024. “Detecting Bias in Traffic Searches: Examining False Searches of Innocent Drivers.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-024-09585-4.
  185. ↵
    1. Micucci, Anthony J., and
    2. Ian M. Gomme
    . 2005. “American Police and Subcultural Support for the Use of Excessive Force.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33(5): 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2005.06.002.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  186. ↵
    1. Milam, Dawn, and
    2. Sean McElwee
    . 2021. “Poll: Voters Support Broad Reforms to Scope of Police Work and Accountability After Chauvin Verdict.” Appeal, April 28, 2021. https://theappeal.org/the-lab/polling-memos/voters-support-broad-reforms-to-scope-of-police-work-and-accountability-after-chauvin-verdict/.
  187. ↵
    1. Mosley, Ariel J., and
    2. Larisa Heiphetz
    . 2021. “Integrating Social and Moral Psychology to Reduce Inequality.” Psychological Inquiry 32(3): 173–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2021.1971445.
    OpenUrl
  188. ↵
    1. Mummolo, Jonathan
    . 2018. “Militarization Fails to Enhance Police Safety or Reduce Crime but May Harm Police Reputation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115(37): 9181–86. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805161115.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  189. ↵
    1. Nahra, Alia,
    2. David Knight, and
    3. Bruce Western
    . 2025. “The Transition from Prison to Community.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(3): 230–81. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.06.
    OpenUrl
  190. ↵
    1. Najdowski, Cynthia J
    . 2011. “Stereotype Threat in Criminal Interrogations: Why Innocent Black Suspects Are at Risk for Confessing Falsely.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 17(4): 562–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023741.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  191. ↵
    1. Najdowski, Cynthia J
    . 2023. “How the ‘Black Criminal’ Stereotype Shapes Black People’s Psychological Experience of Policing: Evidence of Stereotype Threat and Remaining Questions.” American Psychologist 78(5): 695–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/AMP0001159.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  192. ↵
    1. Najdowski, Cynthia J.,
    2. Bette L. Bottoms, and
    3. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2015. “Stereotype Threat and Racial Differences in Citizens’ Experiences of Police Encounters.” Law and Human Behavior 39(5): 463–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000140.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  193. ↵
    1. Najdowski, Cynthia J., and
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2022. “Toward a Psychological Science of Abolition Democracy: Insights for Improving Theory and Research on Race and Public Safety.” Social Issues and Policy Review 16(1): 33–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12083.
    OpenUrl
  194. ↵
    1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
    . 2018. Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24928.
  195. ↵
    1. Neil, Roland, and
    2. Christopher Winship
    . 2019. “Methodological Challenges and Opportunities in Testing for Racial Discrimination in Policing.” Annual Review of Criminology 2: 73–98. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024731.
    OpenUrl
  196. ↵
    1. Neil, Roland, and
    2. Michael Zanger-Tishler
    . 2025. “Algorithmic Bias in Criminal Risk Assessment: The Consequences of Racial Differences in Arrest as a Measure of Crime.” Annual Review of Criminology 8: 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-125019.
    OpenUrl
  197. ↵
    1. Neville, Helen A.,
    2. Germaine H. Awad,
    3. James E. Brooks,
    4. Michelle P. Flores, and
    5. Jamie Bluemel
    . 2013. “Color-Blind Racial Ideology: Theory, Training, and Measurement Implications in Psychology.” American Psychologist 68(6): 455–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  198. ↵
    1. New York Times
    . 2013. “Racial Discrimination in Stop-and-Frisk.” New York Times, August 12, 2013. www.nytimes.com/2013/08/13/opinion/racial-discrimination-in-stop-and-frisk.html.
  199. ↵
    1. Nix, Justin,
    2. Bradley A. Campbell,
    3. Edward H. Byers, and
    4. Geoffrey P. Alpert
    . 2017. “A Bird’s Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015.” Criminology and Public Policy 16(1): 309–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12269.
    OpenUrl
  200. ↵
    1. Nugent, William R., and
    2. Angie Khalil
    . 2024. “The Relationship Between Violent Political Rhetoric, Murder Rate, Gun Ownership, and Police Deadly Encounters with Civilians.” Advances in Social Work 24(1): 66–83. https://doi.org/10.18060/27231.
    OpenUrl
  201. ↵
    1. O’Brien, Thomas C., and
    2. Tom R. Tyler
    . 2019. “Rebuilding Trust between Police & Communities Through Procedural Justice & Reconciliation.” Behavioral Science & Policy 5(1): 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/237946151900500104.
    OpenUrl
  202. ↵
    1. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
    . n.d. “Community Policing Defined.” https://portal.cops.usdoj.gov/resourcecenter/RIC/Publications/cops-p157-pub.pdf.
  203. ↵
    1. O’Flaherty, Brendan, and
    2. Rajiv Sethi
    . 2019. Shadows of Doubt: Stereotypes, Crime, and the Pursuit of Justice. Harvard University Press.
  204. ↵
    1. O’Flaherty, Brendan, and
    2. Rajiv Sethi
    . 2024. “Stereotypes, Crime, and Policing.” Annual Review of Criminology 7(1): 383–401. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-120610.
    OpenUrl
  205. ↵
    1. Oberfield, Zachary W
    . 2012. “Socialization and Self-Selection: How Police Officers Develop Their Views About Using Force.” Administration & Society 44(6): 702–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399711420545.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  206. ↵
    1. Olivett, Vincenzo J., and
    2. David S. March
    . 2023. “The Civilian’s Dilemma: Civilians Exhibit Automatic Defensive Responses to the Police.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000439.
  207. ↵
    1. Owens, Emily,
    2. David Weisburd,
    3. Karen L. Amendola, and
    4. Geoffrey P. Alpert
    . 2018. “Can You Build a Better Cop? Experimental Evidence on Supervision, Training, and Policing in the Community.” Criminology & Public Policy 17(1): 41–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12337.
    OpenUrl
  208. ↵
    1. Paluck, Elizabeth Levy,
    2. Roni Porat,
    3. Chelsey S. Clark, and
    4. Donald P. Green
    . 2021. “Prejudice Reduction: Progress and Challenges.” Annual Review of Psychology 72: 533–60. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-071620-030619.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  209. ↵
    1. Paoline, Eugene A. , III
    . 2003. “Taking Stock: Toward a Richer Understanding of Police Culture.” Journal of Criminal Justice 31(3): 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(03)00002-3.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  210. ↵
    1. Paoline, Eugene A. , III,
    2. Jacinta M. Gau, and
    3. William Terrill
    . 2018. “Race and Police Use of Force Encounter in the United States.” British Journal of Criminology 58(1): 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw089.
    OpenUrl
  211. ↵
    1. Paolini, Stefania,
    2. Fiona A. White,
    3. Linda R. Tropp,
    4. Rhiannon N. Turner,
    5. Elizabeth Page-Gould,
    6. Fiona K. Barlow, and
    7. Ángel Gómez
    . 2021. “Intergroup Contact Research in the 21st Century: Lessons Learned and Forward Progress If We Remain Open.” Journal of Social Issues 77(1): 11–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12427.
    OpenUrl
  212. ↵
    1. Payne, B. Keith, and
    2. Joshua Correll
    . 2020. “Race, Weapons, and the Perception of Threat.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 62: 1–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2020.04.001.
    OpenUrl
  213. ↵
    1. PBS NewsHour
    . 2024. “How Policing Has Changed 4 Years after George Floyd’s Murder.” PBS NewsHour, May 27. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-policing-has-changed-4-years-after-george-floyds-murder.
  214. ↵
    1. Pearson, Roderick L. Jr. and
    2. Jeffrey M. Timberlake
    . 2023. “Effects of Police Violence on Citizen Calls for Service: The Killing of Samuel DuBose in Cincinnati, Ohio.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and the City 4(1): 27–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/26884674.2022.2117111.
    OpenUrl
  215. ↵
    1. Penner, Louis A.,
    2. John F. Dovidio,
    3. Nao Hagiwara, and
    4. Brian D. Smedley
    . 2023. Unequal Health: Anti-Black Racism and the Threat to America’s Health. Cambridge University Press.
  216. ↵
    1. Peruche, B. Michelle, and
    2. E. Ashby Plant
    . 2006. “The Correlates of Law Enforcement Officers’ Automatic and Controlled Race-Based Responses to Criminal Suspects.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 28(2): 193–99. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp28.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  217. ↵
    1. Petersen, Kevin,
    2. David Weisburd,
    3. Sydney Fay,
    4. Elizabeth Eggins, and
    5. Lorraine Mazerolle
    . 2023. “Police Stops to Reduce Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Campbell Systematic Reviews 19(1): e1302. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1302.
    OpenUrl
  218. ↵
    1. Pettigrew, Thomas F., and
    2. Linda R. Tropp
    . 2013. When Groups Meet: The Dynamics of Intergroup Contact. Psychology Press.
  219. ↵
    1. Peyton, Kyle,
    2. Michael Sierra-Arévalo, and
    3. David G. Rand
    . 2019. “A Field Experiment on Community Policing and Police Legitimacy.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(40): 19894–98. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910157116.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  220. ↵
    1. Pickett, Justin T.,
    2. Amanda Graham, and
    3. Francis T. Cullen
    . 2022. “The American Racial Divide in Fear of the Police.” Criminology 60(2): 291–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12298.
    OpenUrl
  221. ↵
    1. Pickett, Justin T.,
    2. Kelly Welch,
    3. Ted Chiricos, and
    4. Marc Gertz
    . 2014. “Racial Crime Stereotypes and Offender Juvenility: Comparing Public Views about Youth-Specific and Non-Youth-Specific Sanctions.” Race and Justice 4(4): 381–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368714542007.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  222. ↵
    1. Pierson, Emma,
    2. Camelia Simoiu,
    3. Jan Overgoor, et al
    . 2020. “A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops Across the United States.” Nature Human Behaviour 4: 736–45. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  223. ↵
    1. Plant, E. Ashby,
    2. Joanna Goplen, and
    3. Jonathan W. Kunstman
    . 2011. “Selective Responses to Threat: The Roles of Race and Gender in Decisions to Shoot.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37(9): 1274–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211408617.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  224. ↵
    1. Plant, E. Ashby, and
    2. B. Michelle Peruche
    2005. “The Consequences of Race for Police Officers’ Responses to Criminal Suspects.” Psychological Science 16(3): 180–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00800.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  225. ↵
    1. Plant, E. Ashby,
    2. B. Michelle Peruche, and
    3. David A. Butz
    . 2005. “Eliminating Automatic Racial Bias: Making Race Non-Diagnostic for Responses to Criminal Suspects.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41(2): 141–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.07.004.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  226. ↵
    1. Prowse, Gwen, and
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2023. “Why Seeing the Big Picture in the Study of Public Safety Is Necessary for Combatting Racism Within It.” In The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Law, edited by David DeMatteo and Kyle C. Scherr. Oxford University Press.
  227. ↵
    1. Pryor, Marie,
    2. Kim Shayo Buchanan, and
    3. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2020. “Risky Situations: Sources of Racial Disparity in Police Behavior.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 16: 343–60. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042633.
    OpenUrl
  228. ↵
    1. Pulido, Laura
    . 2017. “Geographies of Race and Ethnicity II: Environmental Racism, Racial Capitalism and State-Sanctioned Violence.” Progress in Human Geography 41(4): 524–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132516646495.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  229. ↵
    1. Racial and Identity Profiling Advisory Board
    . 2021. Annual Report. https://oag.ca.gov/sites/all/files/agweb/pdfs/ripa/ripa-board-report-2021.pdf.
  230. ↵
    1. Rackstraw, Emma
    . 2023. “When Reality TV Creates Reality: How ‘Copaganda’ Affects Police, Communities, and Viewers.” SSRN. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4592803.
  231. ↵
    1. Radburn, Matthew,
    2. Leanne Savigar-Shaw,
    3. Clifford Stott,
    4. Deborah Tallent, and
    5. Arabella Kyprianides
    . 2022. “How Do Police Officers Talk About Their Encounters with ‘the Public’? Group Interaction, Procedural Justice and Officer Constructions of Policing Identities.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 22(1): 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895820933912.
    OpenUrl
  232. ↵
    1. Ratcliffe, Jerry H
    . 2004. “Geocoding Crime and a First Estimate of a Minimum Acceptable Hit Rate.” International Journal of Geographical Information Science 18(1): 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658810310001596076.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  233. ↵
    1. Rattan, Aneeta,
    2. Cynthia S. Levine,
    3. Carol S. Dweck, and
    4. Jennifer L. Eberhardt
    . 2012. “Race and the Fragility of the Legal Distinction Between Juveniles and Adults.” PloS One 7(5): e36680. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036680.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  234. ↵
    1. Rawlings, Philip
    . 2002. Policing: A Short History. Willan Publishing.
  235. ↵
    1. Ray, Victor
    . 2019. “A Theory of Racialized Organizations.” American Sociological Review 84(1): 26–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418822335.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  236. ↵
    1. Reimer, Nils Karl,
    2. Katharina Schmid,
    3. Miles Hewstone, and
    4. Ananthi Al Ramiah
    . 2022. “Self-Categorization and Social Identification: Making Sense of Us and Them.” In Theories in Social Psychology, 2nd ed., edited by Derek Chadee. John Wiley & Sons.
  237. ↵
    1. Rho, Eugenia H.,
    2. Maggie Harrington,
    3. Yuyang Zhong, et al
    . 2023. “Escalated Police Stops of Black Men are Linguistically and Psychologically Distinct in Their Earliest Moments.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 12(23): e2216162120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2216162120.
    OpenUrl
  238. ↵
    1. Richeson, Jennifer A., and
    2. J. Nicole Shelton
    . 2003. “When Prejudice Does Not Pay: Effects of Interracial Contact on Executive Function.” Psychological Science 14(3): 287–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.03437-
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  239. ↵
    1. Ross, Cody T
    . 2015. “A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014.” PLoS One 10(11), e0141854. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141854.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  240. ↵
    1. Ross, Cody T.,
    2. Bruce Winterhalder, and
    3. Richard McElreath
    . 2021. “Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 12(3): 323–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620916071.
    OpenUrl
  241. ↵
    1. Ross, Lee
    . 1977. “The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 10: 173–220.
    OpenUrl
  242. ↵
    1. Rozema, Kyle, and
    2. Max Schanzenbach
    . 2019. “Good Cop, Bad Cop: Using Civilian Allegations to Predict Police Misconduct.” American Economic Journal 11(2): 225–68. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20160573.
    OpenUrl
  243. ↵
    1. Ryo, Emily,
    2. Jennifer M. Chacón, and
    3. Cecilia Menjívar
    . 2025. “Criminalization of Immigration.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(3): 282–343. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.07.
    OpenUrl
  244. ↵
    1. Sadler, Melody S.,
    2. Joshua Correll,
    3. Bernadette Park, and
    4. Charles M. Judd
    . 2012. “The World Is Not Black and White: Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot in a Multiethnic Context.” Journal of Social Issues 68(2): 286–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01749.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  245. ↵
    1. Sances, Michael W., and
    2. Hye Young You
    . 2018. “Cities with More African Americans Rely More on Fines for Revenue.” USApp-American Politics and Policy Blog, May 8. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/90046/.
  246. ↵
    1. Savidge, Nico,
    2. Ally Markovich, and
    3. Supriya Yelimeli
    . 2022. “Leaked Texts Show Berkeley Police Union Leader Made Derogatory Comments about Homeless Residents, People of Color, Ex-Officer Says.” Berkeleyside, November 14. https://www.berkeleyside.org/2022/11/14/berkeley-police-text-messages-darren-kacalek-bpa.
  247. ↵
    1. Schein, Edgar H
    . 1990. “Organizational Culture.” American Psychologist 45(2): 109–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.2.109.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  248. ↵
    1. Schuck, Amie M
    . 2023. “Exploring the Guardian Mindset as a Strategy for Improving Police-Community Relations.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-023-09617-y.
  249. ↵
    1. Sewell, Abigail A
    . 2017. “Illness Associations of Police Violence: Differential Relationships by Ethnoracial Composition.” Sociological Forum 32: 975–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12361.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  250. ↵
    1. Sewell, Abigail A., and
    2. Kevin A. Jefferson
    . 2016. “Collateral Damage: The Health Effects of Invasive Police Encounters in New York City.” Journal of Urban Health 93(Suppl 1): 42–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0016-7.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  251. ↵
    1. Sharkey, Patrick,
    2. Max Besbris, and
    3. Michael Friedson
    . 2016. “Poverty and Crime.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty, edited by David Brady and Linda M. Burton. Oxford University Press.
  252. ↵
    1. Sharkey, Patrick,
    2. Gerard Torrats-Espinosa, and
    3. Delaram Takyar
    . 2017. “Community and the Crime Decline: The Causal Effect of Local Nonprofits on Violent Crime.” American Sociological Review 82(6): 1214–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417736289.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  253. ↵
    1. Sheppard, Keller G., and
    2. Jacob I. Stowell
    . 2022. “Police Fatal Force and Crime Reporting: A Test of Community Responses to Fatal Police-Civilian Encounters.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(21–22): NP19730–NP19758. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211043579.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  254. ↵
    1. Shjarback, John
    . 2018. “‘Neighborhood’ Influence on Police Use of Force: State-of-the-Art Review.” Policing: An International Journal 41(6): 859–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2017-0087.
    OpenUrl
  255. ↵
    1. Sidanius, Jim,
    2. Sarah Cotterill,
    3. Jennifer Sheehy-Skeffington,
    4. Nour Kteily, and
    5. Hector Carvacho
    , 2017. “Social Dominance Theory: Explorations in the Psychology of Oppression.” In The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice, edited by Chris G. Sibley and Fiona K. Barlow. Cambridge University Press.
  256. ↵
    1. Sidanius, Jim,
    2. James H. Liu,
    3. John S. Shaw, and
    4. Felicia Pratto
    . 1994. “Social Dominance Orientation, Hierarchy Attenuators and Hierarchy Enhancers: Social Dominance Theory and the Criminal Justice System.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 24(4): 338–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb00586.x.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  257. ↵
    1. Sidanius, Jim, and
    2. Felicia Pratto
    . 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  258. ↵
    1. Silver, Jason R.,
    2. Sean Patrick Roche,
    3. Thomas J. Bilach, and
    4. Stephanie Bontrager Ryon
    . 2017. “Traditional Police Culture, Use of Force, and Procedural Justice: Investigating Individual, Organizational, and Contextual Factors.” Justice Quarterly 34(7): 1272–1309. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1381756.
    OpenUrl
  259. ↵
    1. Sim, Jessica J.,
    2. Joshua Correll, and
    3. Melody S. Sadler
    . 2013. “Understanding Police and Expert Performance: When Training Attenuates (vs. Exacerbates) Stereotypic Bias in the Decision to Shoot.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(3): 291–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212473157.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  260. ↵
    1. Simon, Samantha J
    . 2023. “Training for War: Academy Socialization and Warrior Policing.” Social Problems 70(4): 1021–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spab057.
    OpenUrl
  261. ↵
    1. Smith, Brad W., and
    2. Malcolm D. Holmes
    . 2014. “Police Use of Excessive Force in Minority Communities: A Test of the Minority Threat, Place, and Community Accountability Hypotheses.” Social Problems 61(1): 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2013.12056
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  262. ↵
    1. Smith, Michael R.,
    2. Rob Tillyer, and
    3. Robin S. Engel
    . 2023. “Race and the Use of Force by Police Revisited: Post-Ferguson Findings from a Large County Police Agency.” Police Quarterly 26(4): 411–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111221139442.
    OpenUrl
  263. ↵
    1. Smith Lee, Jocelyn R., and
    2. Michael A. Robinson
    2019. “That’s My Number One Fear in Life. It’s the Police”: Examining Young Black Men’s Exposures to Trauma and Loss Resulting from Police Violence and Police Killings.” Journal of Black Psychology 45(3): 143–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798419865152.
    OpenUrl
  264. ↵
    1. Soss, Joe, and
    2. Vesla Weaver
    . 2017. “Police Are Our Government: Politics, Political Science, and the Policing of Race–Class Subjugated Communities.” Annual Review of Political Science 20: 565–91.
    OpenUrl
  265. ↵
    1. Stanley, Jason
    . 2015. How Propaganda Works. Princeton University Press.
  266. ↵
    1. Stansfield, Richard
    . 2022. “Police–Community Relations, Excessive Force, and Community Stress: Evidence from a Community Survey.” Psychology of Violence 12(4): 201–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/VIO0000404.
    OpenUrl
  267. ↵
    1. Statista
    . 2024. “Rate of Fatal Police Shootings in the United States from 2015 to 2023, by Ethnicity.” https://www.statista.com/statistics/1123070/police-shootings-rate-ethnicity-us/.
  268. ↵
    1. Steele, Claude M
    . 2011. Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes Affect Us and What We Can Do. W. W. Norton.
  269. ↵
    1. Stein, Timo,
    2. Tommaso Ciorli, and
    3. Marte Otten
    . 2023. “Guns Are Not Faster to Enter Awareness after Seeing a Black Face: Absence of Race-Priming in a Gun/Tool Task During Continuous Flash Suppression.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 49(3): 405–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211067068.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  270. ↵
    1. Stelter, Marleen,
    2. Iniobong Essien,
    3. I. Carsten Sander, and
    4. Juliane Degner
    . 2022. “Racial Bias in Police Traffic Stops: White Residents’ County-Level Prejudice and Stereotypes Are Related to Disproportionate Stopping of Black Drivers.” Psychological Science 33(4): 483–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211051272.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  271. ↵
    1. Stoughton, Seth
    . 2014. “Law Enforcement’s ‘Warrior’ Problem.” Harvard Law Review Forum 128: 225–34.
    OpenUrl
  272. ↵
    1. Subramanian, Ram, and
    2. Leily Arzy
    . 2021. “State Policing Reforms Since George Floyd’s Murder.” Brennan Center for Justice, May 21. https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/state-policing-reforms-george-floyds-murder.
  273. ↵
    1. Sweeney, Annie, and
    2. Paige Fry
    . 2018. “Nearly 33,000 Juveniles Arrested over Last Two Decades Labeled as Gang Members by Chicago Police.” Chicago Tribune, August 9. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-met-chicago-police-gang-database-juveniles-20180725-story.html.
  274. ↵
    1. Swencionis, Jillian K., and
    2. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2017. “The Psychological Science of Racial Bias and Policing.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 23(4): 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000130.
    OpenUrl
  275. ↵
    1. Swencionis, Jillian K.,
    2. Enrique R. Pouget, and
    3. Philp Atiba Goff
    . 2021. “Supporting Social Hierarchy Is Associated with White Police Officers’ Use of Force.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(18): e2007693118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2007693118.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  276. ↵
    1. Talbert, Ryan D
    . 2023. “Lethal Police Encounters and Cardiovascular Health Among Black Americans.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 10: 1756–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01359-7.
    OpenUrl
  277. ↵
    1. Taniguchi, Travis,
    2. Heather Vovak,
    3. Gary Cordner, et al
    . 2022. “The Impact of Active Bystander Training on Officer Confidence and Ability to Address Ethical Challenges.” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 16(3): 508–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paac034.
    OpenUrl
  278. ↵
    1. Terrill, William
    . 2005. “Police Use of Force: A Transactional Approach.” Justice Quarterly 22(1): 107–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/0741882042000333663.
    OpenUrl
  279. ↵
    1. Terrill, William, and
    2. Jason R. Ingram
    . 2016. “Citizen Complaints Against the Police: An Eight City Examination.” Police Quarterly 19(2): 150–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611115613320.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  280. ↵
    1. Terrill, William,
    2. Fredrik H. Leinfelt, and
    3. Dae-Hoon Kwak
    . 2008. “Examining Police Use of Force: A Smaller Agency Perspective.” Policing: An International Journal 31(1): 57–76. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510810852576.
    OpenUrl
  281. ↵
    1. Terrill, William, and
    2. Stephen D. Mastrofski
    . 2002. “Situational and Officer-Based Determinations of Police Coercion.” Justice Quarterly 19(2): 215–48.
    OpenUrl
  282. ↵
    1. Terrill, William, and
    2. Eugene A. Paoline , III
    . 2017. “Police Use of Less Lethal Force: Does Administrative Policy Matter?” Justice Quarterly 34(2): 193–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1147593.
    OpenUrl
  283. ↵
    1. Theodus, Brett,
    2. Jorge Gonzalez-Hermoso, and
    3. Brady Meixell
    . 2020. “The Opportunity Zone Incentive Isn’t Living up to Its Equitable Development Goals. Here Are Four Ways to Improve It.” Urban Institute. Last modified July 17, 2020. https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/opportunity-zone-incentive-isnt-living-its-equitable-development-goals-here-are-four-ways-improve-it.
  284. ↵
    1. Todd, Andrew R.,
    2. Galen V. Bodenhausen,
    3. Jennifer A. Richeson, and
    4. Adam D. Galinsky
    . 2011. “Perspective Taking Combats Automatic Expressions of Racial Bias.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100(6): 1027–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022308.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  285. ↵
    1. Torrez, Brittany,
    2. LaStarr Hollie,
    3. Jennifer A. Richeson, and
    4. Michael W. Kraus
    . 2024. “The Misperception of Organizational Racial Progress Toward Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion.” American Psychologist 79(4): 581–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001309.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  286. ↵
    1. Trawalter, Sophie,
    2. Jennifer A. Richeson, and
    3. J. Nicole Shelton
    . 2009. “Predicting Behavior During Interracial Interactions: A Stress and Coping Approach.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 13(4): 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309345850.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  287. ↵
    1. Trinkner, Rick,
    2. Erin M. Kerrison, and
    3. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2019. “The Force of Fear: Police Stereotype Threat, Self-Legitimacy, and Support for Excessive Force.” Law and Human Behavior 43(5): 421–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000339.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  288. ↵
    1. Trinkner, Rick,
    2. Tom R. Tyler, and
    3. Phillip Atiba Goff
    . 2016. “Justice from Within: The Relations Between a Procedurally Just Organizational Climate and Police Organizational Efficiency, Endorsement of Democratic Policing, and Officer Well-Being.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 22(2): 158–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000085.
    OpenUrl
  289. ↵
    1. Turney, Kristin
    . 2021. “Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents Exposed to Personal and Vicarious Police Contact.” Society and Mental Health 11(2): 113–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869320923095.
    OpenUrl
  290. ↵
    1. Tyler, Tom R
    . 2021. “Reimagining American Policing.” UC Irvine Law Review 11(5): 1387–1414.
    OpenUrl
  291. ↵
    1. Tyler, Tom R., and
    2. Caroline Nobo
    . 2022. Legitimacy-Based Policing and the Promotion of Community Vitality. Cambridge University Press.
  292. ↵
    1. Ugwudike, Pam
    . 2022. “Predictive Algorithms in Justice Systems and the Limits of Tech-Reformism.” International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 11(1): 85–99. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.2189.
    OpenUrl
  293. ↵
    1. US Department of Justice
    . 2015. The Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st-Century Policing 2015. US Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/final-report-presidents-task-force-21st-century-policing.
  294. ↵
    1. US Department of Justice
    . 2025. “Department of Justice Policy on Use of Force.” March 1. https://www.justice.gov/jm/1-16000-department-justice-policy-use-force#:~:text=Officers%20will%20be%20trained%20in%2C%20and%20must%20recognize%20and%20act,on%20the%20reasonable%20use%20offorce.
  295. ↵
    1. USA Today/Ipsos Poll
    . 2021. “Public Poll Findings and Methodology.” January 8. Last modified March 4, 2021. https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2021-03/usat-ipsos_racial_injustice_topline_030421.pdf.
  296. ↵
    1. Van Craen, Maarten
    . 2016. Fair Policing from the Inside Out. Emerald Insight.
  297. ↵
    1. Vitriol, Joseph A.,
    2. Mahzarin R. Banaji, and
    3. Robert Lowe
    . 2024. “Change in Attitudes and Beliefs About Implicit Bias Education: A Demonstration Among Members of a Police Department.” Philosophical Psychology: 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2023.2296585.
  298. ↵
    1. Vogel, Matt, and
    2. Steven F. Messner
    . 2024. “Group Threat and Social Control: Who, What, Where, and When.” Annual Review of Criminology 7: 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-033042.
    OpenUrl
  299. ↵
    1. Voigt, Rob,
    2. Nicholas P. Camp,
    3. Vinodkumar Prabhakaran, and
    4. Jennifer Eberhardt
    . 2017. “Language from the Police Body Camera Footage Shows Racial Disparities in Officer Respect.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(25): 6521–26. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702413114.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  300. ↵
    1. Wakefield, Sara, and
    2. Kristin Turney
    . 2025. “The Rise of the Carceral State: Foundations and Contours of a Rapidly Changing Criminal Legal System.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 11(3): 136–73. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.04.
    OpenUrl
  301. ↵
    1. Walpole, MaryBeth
    . 2003. “Socioeconomic Status and College: How SES Affects College Experiences and Outcomes.” Review of Higher Education 27(1): 45–73. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2003.0044.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  302. ↵
    1. Ward, Geoff
    . 2015. “The Slow Violence of State Organized Race Crime.” Theoretical Criminology 19(3): 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480614550119.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  303. ↵
    1. Weaver, Vesla,
    2. Gwen Prowse, and
    3. Spencer Piston
    . 2020. “Withdrawing and Drawing in: Political Discourse in Policed Communities.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 5(3): 604–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2019.50.
    OpenUrl
  304. ↵
    1. White, Michael D
    . 2001. “Controlling Police Decisions to Use Deadly Force: Reexamining the importance of Administrative Policy.” Crime & Delinquency 47(1): 131–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128701047001.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  305. ↵
    1. Williams, Joseph P
    . 2021. “A Year after George Floyd’s Killing, White Allyship Fades.” U.S News & World Report. https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2021-05-25/a-year-after-george-floyds-killing-white-support-for-black-lives-matter-fades.
    1. Williams Jr., Morgan C.,
    2. Nathan Weil,
    3. Elizabeth A. Rasich,
    4. Jens Ludwig,
    5. Hye Chang, and
    6. Sophia Egrari
    . 2021. “Body-Worn Cameras in Policing: Benefits and Costs.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 28622. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28622.
  306. ↵
    1. Willis, James J.,
    2. Stephen D. Mastrofski, and
    3. Tammy Rinehart Kochel
    . 2010. “Recommendations for Integrating CompStat and Community Policing.” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 4(2): 182–93. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paq005.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  307. ↵
    1. Willits, Dale W., and
    2. David A. Makin
    . 2018. “Show Me What Happened: Analyzing Use of Force Through Analysis of Body-Worn Camera Footage.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 55(1): 51–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427817701257.
    OpenUrl
  308. ↵
    1. Wilson, John Paul,
    2. Kurt Hugenberg, and
    3. Nicholas O. Rule
    . 2017. “Racial Bias in Judgments of Physical Size and Formidability: From Size to Threat.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 113(1): 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000092.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  309. ↵
    1. Wolfe, Scott E., and
    2. Alex R. Piquero
    . 2011. “Organizational Justice and Police Misconduct.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 38(4): 332–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854810397739.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  310. ↵
    1. Wood, George,
    2. Tom R. Tyler, and
    3. Andrew V. Papachristos
    . 2020. “Procedural Justice Training Reduces Police Use of Force and Complaints against Officers.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(18): 9815–21. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920671117.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  311. ↵
    1. Worden, Robert E.,
    2. Cynthia J. Najdowski,
    3. Sarah J. McLean, et al
    . 2024. “Implicit Bias Training for Police: Evaluating Impacts on Enforcement Disparities.” Law and Human Behavior. Online ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000568.
  312. ↵
    1. Xu, Kaiyuan,
    2. Brian A. Nosek, and
    3. Anthony G. Greenwald
    . 2014. “Psychology Data from the Race Implicit Association Test on the Project Implicit Demo Website.” Journal of Open Psychology Data 2(1): e3. https://doi.org/10.5334/jopd.ac.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  313. ↵
    1. Yearby, Ruqaiijah,
    2. Crystal N. Lewis,
    3. Keon L. Gilbert, and
    4. Kira Banks
    . 2020. “Racism Is a Public Health Crisis.” Institute for Healing Justice & Equity, Data for Progress, The Justice Collaborative Institute. https://ihje.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Racism-is-a-Public-Health-Crisis.pdf.
  314. ↵
    1. Yi, Jacqueline,
    2. Helen A. Neville,
    3. Nathan R. Todd, and
    4. Yara Mekawi
    . 2023. “Ignoring Race and Denying Racism: A Meta-Analysis of the Associations Between Colorblind Racial Ideology, Anti-Blackness, and Other Variables Antithetical to Racial Justice.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 70(3): 258–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000618.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  315. ↵
    1. Zeitzoff, Thomas
    . 2023. Nasty Politics: The Logic of Insults, Threats, and Incitement. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197679487.001.0001.
  316. ↵
    1. Zhang, Yan, and
    2. Lening Zhang
    . 2021. “Racial Characteristics of Areas and Police Decisions to Arrest in Traffic Stops: Multilevel Analysis of Contextual Racial Effects.” Policing: An International Journal 44(5): 772–85. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-11-2020-0176.
    OpenUrl
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences: 11 (3)
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences
Vol. 11, Issue 3
1 Oct 2025
  • Table of Contents
  • Table of Contents (PDF)
  • Cover (PDF)
  • Index by author
  • Front Matter (PDF)
Print
Download PDF
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
The Scope of Racial Bias in Policing: Behavioral Science’s Role in a Systemic Problem
(Your Name) has sent you a message from RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences web site.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
1 + 1 =
Solve this simple math problem and enter the result. E.g. for 1+3, enter 4.
Citation Tools
The Scope of Racial Bias in Policing: Behavioral Science’s Role in a Systemic Problem
John F. Dovidio, Phillip Atiba Solomon
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences Oct 2025, 11 (3) 22-85; DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.02

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Share
The Scope of Racial Bias in Policing: Behavioral Science’s Role in a Systemic Problem
John F. Dovidio, Phillip Atiba Solomon
RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences Oct 2025, 11 (3) 22-85; DOI: 10.7758/RSF.2025.11.3.02
del.icio.us logo Twitter logo Facebook logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like
  • Google Plus One

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS: THE BIOLOGIST, THE BULLY, THE BUREAUCRAT, THE BILLIONAIRE, AND THE GREAT BARD
    • RACIAL DISPARITIES IN POLICING
    • NANO-LEVEL PROCESSES AND BIAS IN POLICING
    • MICRO-LEVEL PROCESSES AND BIAS IN POLICING
    • MESO-LEVEL PROCESSES AND BIAS IN POLICING
    • MACRO-LEVEL PROCESSES AND BIAS IN POLICING
    • MEGA-LEVEL PROCESSES AND BIAS IN POLICING
    • MOVING FORWARD
    • CONCLUSION
    • FOOTNOTES
    • REFERENCES
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • References
  • PDF

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • No citing articles found.
  • Google Scholar

Similar Articles

Keywords

  • bias
  • discrimination
  • disparities
  • law enforcement
  • police
  • race
  • racism

© 2026 RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences

Powered by HighWire